sqlglot.generator

   1from __future__ import annotations
   2
   3import logging
   4import re
   5import typing as t
   6from collections import defaultdict
   7from functools import reduce, wraps
   8
   9from sqlglot import exp
  10from sqlglot.errors import ErrorLevel, UnsupportedError, concat_messages
  11from sqlglot.helper import apply_index_offset, csv, name_sequence, seq_get
  12from sqlglot.jsonpath import ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS, JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS
  13from sqlglot.time import format_time
  14from sqlglot.tokens import TokenType
  15
  16if t.TYPE_CHECKING:
  17    from sqlglot._typing import E
  18    from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import DialectType
  19
  20    G = t.TypeVar("G", bound="Generator")
  21    GeneratorMethod = t.Callable[[G, E], str]
  22
  23logger = logging.getLogger("sqlglot")
  24
  25ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE = re.compile(r"\\(\d+)")
  26UNSUPPORTED_TEMPLATE = "Argument '{}' is not supported for expression '{}' when targeting {}."
  27
  28
  29def unsupported_args(
  30    *args: t.Union[str, t.Tuple[str, str]],
  31) -> t.Callable[[GeneratorMethod], GeneratorMethod]:
  32    """
  33    Decorator that can be used to mark certain args of an `Expression` subclass as unsupported.
  34    It expects a sequence of argument names or pairs of the form (argument_name, diagnostic_msg).
  35    """
  36    diagnostic_by_arg: t.Dict[str, t.Optional[str]] = {}
  37    for arg in args:
  38        if isinstance(arg, str):
  39            diagnostic_by_arg[arg] = None
  40        else:
  41            diagnostic_by_arg[arg[0]] = arg[1]
  42
  43    def decorator(func: GeneratorMethod) -> GeneratorMethod:
  44        @wraps(func)
  45        def _func(generator: G, expression: E) -> str:
  46            expression_name = expression.__class__.__name__
  47            dialect_name = generator.dialect.__class__.__name__
  48
  49            for arg_name, diagnostic in diagnostic_by_arg.items():
  50                if expression.args.get(arg_name):
  51                    diagnostic = diagnostic or UNSUPPORTED_TEMPLATE.format(
  52                        arg_name, expression_name, dialect_name
  53                    )
  54                    generator.unsupported(diagnostic)
  55
  56            return func(generator, expression)
  57
  58        return _func
  59
  60    return decorator
  61
  62
  63class _Generator(type):
  64    def __new__(cls, clsname, bases, attrs):
  65        klass = super().__new__(cls, clsname, bases, attrs)
  66
  67        # Remove transforms that correspond to unsupported JSONPathPart expressions
  68        for part in ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS - klass.SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS:
  69            klass.TRANSFORMS.pop(part, None)
  70
  71        return klass
  72
  73
  74class Generator(metaclass=_Generator):
  75    """
  76    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  77
  78    Args:
  79        pretty: Whether to format the produced SQL string.
  80            Default: False.
  81        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  82            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  83            True or 'always': Always quote.
  84            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  85        normalize: Whether to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  86            Default: False.
  87        pad: The pad size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of
  88            a projection in a query, relative to its nesting level.
  89            Default: 2.
  90        indent: The indentation size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the
  91            indentation of subqueries and filters under a `WHERE` clause.
  92            Default: 2.
  93        normalize_functions: How to normalize function names. Possible values are:
  94            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  95            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  96            False: Disables function name normalization.
  97        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  98            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  99        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
 100            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
 101            Default: 3
 102        leading_comma: Whether the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
 103            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
 104            Default: False
 105        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
 106            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
 107            line length.
 108            Default: 80
 109        comments: Whether to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
 110            Default: True
 111    """
 112
 113    TRANSFORMS: t.Dict[t.Type[exp.Expression], t.Callable[..., str]] = {
 114        **JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS,
 115        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: lambda self,
 116        e: f"ALLOWED_VALUES {self.expressions(e, flat=True)}",
 117        exp.AnalyzeColumns: lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "this"),
 118        exp.AnalyzeWith: lambda self, e: self.expressions(e, prefix="WITH ", sep=" "),
 119        exp.ArrayContainsAll: lambda self, e: self.binary(e, "@>"),
 120        exp.ArrayOverlaps: lambda self, e: self.binary(e, "&&"),
 121        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: lambda self, e: f"AUTO REFRESH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 122        exp.BackupProperty: lambda self, e: f"BACKUP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 123        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda _,
 124        e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
 125        exp.Ceil: lambda self, e: self.ceil_floor(e),
 126        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 127        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self,
 128        e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 129        exp.ClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 130        e: f"CLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
 131        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 132        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 133        exp.ConnectByRoot: lambda self, e: f"CONNECT_BY_ROOT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 134        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda *_: "COPY GRANTS",
 135        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 136        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 137        exp.DynamicProperty: lambda *_: "DYNAMIC",
 138        exp.EmptyProperty: lambda *_: "EMPTY",
 139        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 140        exp.EphemeralColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 141        e: f"EPHEMERAL{(' ' + self.sql(e, 'this')) if e.this else ''}",
 142        exp.ExcludeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"EXCLUDE {self.sql(e, 'this').lstrip()}",
 143        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 144        exp.Except: lambda self, e: self.set_operations(e),
 145        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda *_: "EXTERNAL",
 146        exp.Floor: lambda self, e: self.ceil_floor(e),
 147        exp.GlobalProperty: lambda *_: "GLOBAL",
 148        exp.HeapProperty: lambda *_: "HEAP",
 149        exp.IcebergProperty: lambda *_: "ICEBERG",
 150        exp.InheritsProperty: lambda self, e: f"INHERITS ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 151        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 152        exp.InputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"INPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 153        exp.Intersect: lambda self, e: self.set_operations(e),
 154        exp.IntervalSpan: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} TO {self.sql(e, 'expression')}",
 155        exp.Int64: lambda self, e: self.sql(exp.cast(e.this, exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT)),
 156        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 157        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 158        exp.LogProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
 159        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda *_: "MATERIALIZED",
 160        exp.NonClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 161        e: f"NONCLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
 162        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda *_: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
 163        exp.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "NOT FOR REPLICATION",
 164        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda _,
 165        e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
 166        exp.OnProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 167        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 168        exp.Operator: lambda self, e: self.binary(e, ""),  # The operator is produced in `binary`
 169        exp.OutputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"OUTPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 170        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 171        exp.PivotAny: lambda self, e: f"ANY{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 172        exp.ProjectionPolicyColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 173        e: f"PROJECTION POLICY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 174        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: lambda self,
 175        e: f"REMOTE WITH CONNECTION {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 176        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: (
 177            "RETURNS NULL ON NULL INPUT" if e.args.get("null") else self.naked_property(e)
 178        ),
 179        exp.SampleProperty: lambda self, e: f"SAMPLE BY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 180        exp.SecureProperty: lambda *_: "SECURE",
 181        exp.SecurityProperty: lambda self, e: f"SECURITY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 182        exp.SetConfigProperty: lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "this"),
 183        exp.SetProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
 184        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
 185        exp.SharingProperty: lambda self, e: f"SHARING={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 186        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 187        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda _,
 188        e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
 189        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 190        exp.Stream: lambda self, e: f"STREAM {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 191        exp.StreamingTableProperty: lambda *_: "STREAMING",
 192        exp.StrictProperty: lambda *_: "STRICT",
 193        exp.SwapTable: lambda self, e: f"SWAP WITH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 194        exp.Tags: lambda self, e: f"TAG ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 195        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda *_: "TEMPORARY",
 196        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 197        exp.ToMap: lambda self, e: f"MAP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 198        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
 199        exp.TransformModelProperty: lambda self, e: self.func("TRANSFORM", *e.expressions),
 200        exp.TransientProperty: lambda *_: "TRANSIENT",
 201        exp.Union: lambda self, e: self.set_operations(e),
 202        exp.UnloggedProperty: lambda *_: "UNLOGGED",
 203        exp.UsingTemplateProperty: lambda self, e: f"USING TEMPLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 204        exp.UsingData: lambda self, e: f"USING DATA {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 205        exp.Uuid: lambda *_: "UUID()",
 206        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "UPPERCASE",
 207        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
 208        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 209        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda *_: "VOLATILE",
 210        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 211        exp.WithProcedureOptions: lambda self, e: f"WITH {self.expressions(e, flat=True)}",
 212        exp.WithSchemaBindingProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH SCHEMA {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 213        exp.WithOperator: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} WITH {self.sql(e, 'op')}",
 214        exp.ForceProperty: lambda *_: "FORCE",
 215    }
 216
 217    # Whether null ordering is supported in order by
 218    # True: Full Support, None: No support, False: No support for certain cases
 219    # such as window specifications, aggregate functions etc
 220    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: t.Optional[bool] = True
 221
 222    # Whether ignore nulls is inside the agg or outside.
 223    # FIRST(x IGNORE NULLS) OVER vs FIRST (x) IGNORE NULLS OVER
 224    IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC = False
 225
 226    # Whether locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 227    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 228
 229    # Whether the EXCEPT and INTERSECT operations can return duplicates
 230    EXCEPT_INTERSECT_SUPPORT_ALL_CLAUSE = True
 231
 232    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 233    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 234
 235    # Whether create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 236    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 237
 238    # Whether MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 239    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 240
 241    # Whether the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 242    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 243
 244    # Whether the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 245    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 246
 247    # Whether limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 248    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 249
 250    # Whether limit and fetch allows expresions or just limits
 251    LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
 252
 253    # Whether a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 254    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 255
 256    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 257    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 258
 259    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 260    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 261
 262    # Whether join hints should be generated
 263    JOIN_HINTS = True
 264
 265    # Whether table hints should be generated
 266    TABLE_HINTS = True
 267
 268    # Whether query hints should be generated
 269    QUERY_HINTS = True
 270
 271    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
 272    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
 273
 274    # Whether comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 275    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 276
 277    # Whether to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
 278    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
 279
 280    # Whether to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
 281    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
 282
 283    # Whether to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
 284    RETURNING_END = True
 285
 286    # Whether to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
 287    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
 288
 289    # Whether TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
 290    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
 291
 292    # Whether the NVL2 function is supported
 293    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
 294
 295    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 296    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 297
 298    # Whether VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
 299    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
 300    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
 301    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
 302
 303    # Whether the word COLUMN is included when adding a column with ALTER TABLE
 304    ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
 305
 306    # UNNEST WITH ORDINALITY (presto) instead of UNNEST WITH OFFSET (bigquery)
 307    UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
 308
 309    # Whether FILTER (WHERE cond) can be used for conditional aggregation
 310    AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
 311
 312    # Whether JOIN sides (LEFT, RIGHT) are supported in conjunction with SEMI/ANTI join kinds
 313    SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
 314
 315    # Whether to include the type of a computed column in the CREATE DDL
 316    COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
 317
 318    # Whether CREATE TABLE .. COPY .. is supported. False means we'll generate CLONE instead of COPY
 319    SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
 320
 321    # Whether parentheses are required around the table sample's expression
 322    TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
 323
 324    # Whether a table sample clause's size needs to be followed by the ROWS keyword
 325    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
 326
 327    # The keyword(s) to use when generating a sample clause
 328    TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = "TABLESAMPLE"
 329
 330    # Whether the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 331    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 332
 333    # The keyword to use when specifying the seed of a sample clause
 334    TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = "SEED"
 335
 336    # Whether COLLATE is a function instead of a binary operator
 337    COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
 338
 339    # Whether data types support additional specifiers like e.g. CHAR or BYTE (oracle)
 340    DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
 341
 342    # Whether conditions require booleans WHERE x = 0 vs WHERE x
 343    ENSURE_BOOLS = False
 344
 345    # Whether the "RECURSIVE" keyword is required when defining recursive CTEs
 346    CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
 347
 348    # Whether CONCAT requires >1 arguments
 349    SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
 350
 351    # Whether LAST_DAY function supports a date part argument
 352    LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
 353
 354    # Whether named columns are allowed in table aliases
 355    SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
 356
 357    # Whether UNPIVOT aliases are Identifiers (False means they're Literals)
 358    UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
 359
 360    # What delimiter to use for separating JSON key/value pairs
 361    JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ":"
 362
 363    # INSERT OVERWRITE TABLE x override
 364    INSERT_OVERWRITE = " OVERWRITE TABLE"
 365
 366    # Whether the SELECT .. INTO syntax is used instead of CTAS
 367    SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False
 368
 369    # Whether UNLOGGED tables can be created
 370    SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False
 371
 372    # Whether the CREATE TABLE LIKE statement is supported
 373    SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE = True
 374
 375    # Whether the LikeProperty needs to be specified inside of the schema clause
 376    LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA = False
 377
 378    # Whether DISTINCT can be followed by multiple args in an AggFunc. If not, it will be
 379    # transpiled into a series of CASE-WHEN-ELSE, ultimately using a tuple conseisting of the args
 380    MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT = True
 381
 382    # Whether the JSON extraction operators expect a value of type JSON
 383    JSON_TYPE_REQUIRED_FOR_EXTRACTION = False
 384
 385    # Whether bracketed keys like ["foo"] are supported in JSON paths
 386    JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED = True
 387
 388    # Whether to escape keys using single quotes in JSON paths
 389    JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE = False
 390
 391    # The JSONPathPart expressions supported by this dialect
 392    SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS = ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS.copy()
 393
 394    # Whether any(f(x) for x in array) can be implemented by this dialect
 395    CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY = False
 396
 397    # Whether the function TO_NUMBER is supported
 398    SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER = True
 399
 400    # Whether or not set op modifiers apply to the outer set op or select.
 401    # SELECT * FROM x UNION SELECT * FROM y LIMIT 1
 402    # True means limit 1 happens after the set op, False means it it happens on y.
 403    SET_OP_MODIFIERS = True
 404
 405    # Whether parameters from COPY statement are wrapped in parentheses
 406    COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED = True
 407
 408    # Whether values of params are set with "=" token or empty space
 409    COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED = False
 410
 411    # Whether COPY statement has INTO keyword
 412    COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD = True
 413
 414    # Whether the conditional TRY(expression) function is supported
 415    TRY_SUPPORTED = True
 416
 417    # Whether the UESCAPE syntax in unicode strings is supported
 418    SUPPORTS_UESCAPE = True
 419
 420    # The keyword to use when generating a star projection with excluded columns
 421    STAR_EXCEPT = "EXCEPT"
 422
 423    # The HEX function name
 424    HEX_FUNC = "HEX"
 425
 426    # The keywords to use when prefixing & separating WITH based properties
 427    WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX = "WITH"
 428
 429    # Whether to quote the generated expression of exp.JsonPath
 430    QUOTE_JSON_PATH = True
 431
 432    # Whether the text pattern/fill (3rd) parameter of RPAD()/LPAD() is optional (defaults to space)
 433    PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED = False
 434
 435    # Whether a projection can explode into multiple rows, e.g. by unnesting an array.
 436    SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS = True
 437
 438    # Whether ARRAY_CONCAT can be generated with varlen args or if it should be reduced to 2-arg version
 439    ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN = True
 440
 441    # Whether CONVERT_TIMEZONE() is supported; if not, it will be generated as exp.AtTimeZone
 442    SUPPORTS_CONVERT_TIMEZONE = False
 443
 444    # Whether MEDIAN(expr) is supported; if not, it will be generated as PERCENTILE_CONT(expr, 0.5)
 445    SUPPORTS_MEDIAN = True
 446
 447    # Whether UNIX_SECONDS(timestamp) is supported
 448    SUPPORTS_UNIX_SECONDS = False
 449
 450    # The name to generate for the JSONPath expression. If `None`, only `this` will be generated
 451    PARSE_JSON_NAME: t.Optional[str] = "PARSE_JSON"
 452
 453    # The function name of the exp.ArraySize expression
 454    ARRAY_SIZE_NAME: str = "ARRAY_LENGTH"
 455
 456    # The syntax to use when altering the type of a column
 457    ALTER_SET_TYPE = "SET DATA TYPE"
 458
 459    # Whether exp.ArraySize should generate the dimension arg too (valid for Postgres & DuckDB)
 460    # None -> Doesn't support it at all
 461    # False (DuckDB) -> Has backwards-compatible support, but preferably generated without
 462    # True (Postgres) -> Explicitly requires it
 463    ARRAY_SIZE_DIM_REQUIRED: t.Optional[bool] = None
 464
 465    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 466        exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME2: "TIMESTAMP",
 467        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 468        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 469        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 470        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 471        exp.DataType.Type.TINYTEXT: "TEXT",
 472        exp.DataType.Type.BLOB: "VARBINARY",
 473        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 474        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 475        exp.DataType.Type.TINYBLOB: "BLOB",
 476        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 477        exp.DataType.Type.ROWVERSION: "VARBINARY",
 478        exp.DataType.Type.SMALLDATETIME: "TIMESTAMP",
 479    }
 480
 481    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 482        "MICROSECONDS": "MICROSECOND",
 483        "SECONDS": "SECOND",
 484        "MINUTES": "MINUTE",
 485        "HOURS": "HOUR",
 486        "DAYS": "DAY",
 487        "WEEKS": "WEEK",
 488        "MONTHS": "MONTH",
 489        "QUARTERS": "QUARTER",
 490        "YEARS": "YEAR",
 491    }
 492
 493    AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS = {
 494        "cluster": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "cluster"),
 495        "distribute": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "distribute"),
 496        "sort": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "sort"),
 497        "windows": lambda self, e: (
 498            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(e, key="windows", flat=True)
 499            if e.args.get("windows")
 500            else ""
 501        ),
 502        "qualify": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "qualify"),
 503    }
 504
 505    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 506
 507    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 508
 509    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 510    NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN = ":"
 511
 512    EXPRESSION_PRECEDES_PROPERTIES_CREATABLES: t.Set[str] = set()
 513
 514    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 515        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 516        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 517        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 518        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 519        exp.BackupProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 520        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 521        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 522        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 523        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 524        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 525        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 526        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 527        exp.DistributedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 528        exp.DuplicateKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 529        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 530        exp.DataDeletionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 531        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 532        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 533        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 534        exp.DynamicProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 535        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 536        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 537        exp.EmptyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 538        exp.EncodeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 539        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 540        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 541        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 542        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 543        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 544        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 545        exp.GlobalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 546        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 547        exp.InheritsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 548        exp.IcebergProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 549        exp.IncludeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 550        exp.InputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 551        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 552        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 553        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 554        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 555        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 556        exp.LockProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 557        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 558        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 559        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 560        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 561        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 562        exp.OnProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 563        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 564        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 565        exp.OutputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 566        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 567        exp.PartitionedOfProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 568        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 569        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 570        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 571        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 572        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 573        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 574        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 575        exp.SampleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 576        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 577        exp.SecureProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 578        exp.SecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 579        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 580        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 581        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 582        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 583        exp.SetConfigProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 584        exp.SharingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 585        exp.SequenceProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 586        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 587        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 588        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 589        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 590        exp.StorageHandlerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 591        exp.StreamingTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 592        exp.StrictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 593        exp.Tags: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 594        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 595        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 596        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 597        exp.TransformModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 598        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 599        exp.UnloggedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 600        exp.UsingTemplateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 601        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 602        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 603        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 604        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 605        exp.WithProcedureOptions: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 606        exp.WithSchemaBindingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 607        exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 608        exp.ForceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 609    }
 610
 611    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 612    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 613
 614    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 615    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 616        exp.Command,
 617        exp.Create,
 618        exp.Describe,
 619        exp.Delete,
 620        exp.Drop,
 621        exp.From,
 622        exp.Insert,
 623        exp.Join,
 624        exp.MultitableInserts,
 625        exp.Select,
 626        exp.SetOperation,
 627        exp.Update,
 628        exp.Where,
 629        exp.With,
 630    )
 631
 632    # Expressions that should not have their comments generated in maybe_comment
 633    EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 634        exp.Binary,
 635        exp.SetOperation,
 636    )
 637
 638    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 639    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 640        exp.Column,
 641        exp.Literal,
 642        exp.Neg,
 643        exp.Paren,
 644    )
 645
 646    PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES = {
 647        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR,
 648        exp.DataType.Type.VARCHAR,
 649        exp.DataType.Type.CHAR,
 650        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR,
 651    }
 652
 653    # Expressions that need to have all CTEs under them bubbled up to them
 654    EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: t.Set[t.Type[exp.Expression]] = set()
 655
 656    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 657
 658    __slots__ = (
 659        "pretty",
 660        "identify",
 661        "normalize",
 662        "pad",
 663        "_indent",
 664        "normalize_functions",
 665        "unsupported_level",
 666        "max_unsupported",
 667        "leading_comma",
 668        "max_text_width",
 669        "comments",
 670        "dialect",
 671        "unsupported_messages",
 672        "_escaped_quote_end",
 673        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 674        "_next_name",
 675        "_identifier_start",
 676        "_identifier_end",
 677        "_quote_json_path_key_using_brackets",
 678    )
 679
 680    def __init__(
 681        self,
 682        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 683        identify: str | bool = False,
 684        normalize: bool = False,
 685        pad: int = 2,
 686        indent: int = 2,
 687        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 688        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 689        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 690        leading_comma: bool = False,
 691        max_text_width: int = 80,
 692        comments: bool = True,
 693        dialect: DialectType = None,
 694    ):
 695        import sqlglot
 696        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
 697
 698        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 699        self.identify = identify
 700        self.normalize = normalize
 701        self.pad = pad
 702        self._indent = indent
 703        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 704        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 705        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 706        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 707        self.comments = comments
 708        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
 709
 710        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 711        self.normalize_functions = (
 712            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 713        )
 714
 715        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 716        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
 717            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
 718        )
 719        self._escaped_identifier_end = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END * 2
 720
 721        self._next_name = name_sequence("_t")
 722
 723        self._identifier_start = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START
 724        self._identifier_end = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
 725
 726        self._quote_json_path_key_using_brackets = True
 727
 728    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
 729        """
 730        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 731
 732        Args:
 733            expression: The syntax tree.
 734            copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
 735                it is safer to copy.
 736
 737        Returns:
 738            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 739        """
 740        if copy:
 741            expression = expression.copy()
 742
 743        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
 744
 745        self.unsupported_messages = []
 746        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 747
 748        if self.pretty:
 749            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 750
 751        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 752            return sql
 753
 754        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 755            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 756                logger.warning(msg)
 757        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 758            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 759
 760        return sql
 761
 762    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
 763        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
 764        expression = self._move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
 765
 766        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
 767            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
 768
 769            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
 770
 771        return expression
 772
 773    def _move_ctes_to_top_level(self, expression: E) -> E:
 774        if (
 775            not expression.parent
 776            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
 777            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
 778        ):
 779            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
 780
 781            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
 782        return expression
 783
 784    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 785        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 786            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 787        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 788
 789    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 790        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 791
 792    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 793        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 794
 795    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 796        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 797        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 798        return comment
 799
 800    def maybe_comment(
 801        self,
 802        sql: str,
 803        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 804        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 805        separated: bool = False,
 806    ) -> str:
 807        comments = (
 808            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 809            if self.comments
 810            else None
 811        )
 812
 813        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
 814            return sql
 815
 816        comments_sql = " ".join(
 817            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 818        )
 819
 820        if not comments_sql:
 821            return sql
 822
 823        comments_sql = self._replace_line_breaks(comments_sql)
 824
 825        if separated or isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 826            return (
 827                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 828                if not sql or sql[0].isspace()
 829                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 830            )
 831
 832        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 833
 834    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 835        this_sql = (
 836            self.sql(expression)
 837            if isinstance(expression, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES)
 838            else self.sql(expression, "this")
 839        )
 840        if not this_sql:
 841            return "()"
 842
 843        this_sql = self.indent(this_sql, level=1, pad=0)
 844        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 845
 846    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 847        original = self.identify
 848        self.identify = False
 849        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 850        self.identify = original
 851        return result
 852
 853    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 854        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 855            return name.upper()
 856        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 857            return name.lower()
 858        return name
 859
 860    def indent(
 861        self,
 862        sql: str,
 863        level: int = 0,
 864        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 865        skip_first: bool = False,
 866        skip_last: bool = False,
 867    ) -> str:
 868        if not self.pretty or not sql:
 869            return sql
 870
 871        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 872        lines = sql.split("\n")
 873
 874        return "\n".join(
 875            (
 876                line
 877                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 878                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 879            )
 880            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 881        )
 882
 883    def sql(
 884        self,
 885        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 886        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 887        comment: bool = True,
 888    ) -> str:
 889        if not expression:
 890            return ""
 891
 892        if isinstance(expression, str):
 893            return expression
 894
 895        if key:
 896            value = expression.args.get(key)
 897            if value:
 898                return self.sql(value)
 899            return ""
 900
 901        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 902
 903        if callable(transform):
 904            sql = transform(self, expression)
 905        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 906            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 907
 908            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 909                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 910            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 911                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 912            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 913                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 914            else:
 915                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 916        else:
 917            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 918
 919        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 920
 921    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 922        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 923        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 924        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 925
 926    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 927        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 928        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 929        options = expression.args.get("options")
 930        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 931        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 932        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 933        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 934        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 935
 936    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 937        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 938            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 939        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 940        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 941
 942    def column_parts(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 943        return ".".join(
 944            self.sql(part)
 945            for part in (
 946                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 947                expression.args.get("db"),
 948                expression.args.get("table"),
 949                expression.args.get("this"),
 950            )
 951            if part
 952        )
 953
 954    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 955        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
 956
 957        if join_mark and not self.dialect.SUPPORTS_COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS:
 958            join_mark = ""
 959            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
 960
 961        return f"{self.column_parts(expression)}{join_mark}"
 962
 963    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 964        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 965        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 966        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 967        return f"{position}{this}"
 968
 969    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 970        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 971        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 972        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 973        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 974        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 975        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 976        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 977        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 978
 979        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
 980            kind = ""
 981
 982        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 983
 984    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 985        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 986        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 987        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 988
 989    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
 990        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 991        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
 992            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
 993        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
 994            persisted = " PERSISTED"
 995        else:
 996            persisted = ""
 997        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
 998
 999    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
1000        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
1001
1002    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
1003        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1004            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
1005        else:
1006            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1007
1008        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
1009
1010    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
1011        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
1012    ) -> str:
1013        this = ""
1014        if expression.this is not None:
1015            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
1016            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
1017
1018        start = expression.args.get("start")
1019        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
1020        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
1021        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
1022        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
1023        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
1024        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
1025        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
1026        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
1027        cycle_sql = ""
1028
1029        if cycle is not None:
1030            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
1031            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
1032
1033        sequence_opts = ""
1034        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
1035            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
1036            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
1037
1038        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1039        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
1040
1041        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
1042
1043    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
1044        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
1045    ) -> str:
1046        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
1047        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
1048        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
1049
1050    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
1051        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
1052    ) -> str:
1053        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
1054
1055    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
1056        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
1057
1058    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
1059        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1060
1061    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
1062        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1063        if desc is not None:
1064            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
1065        return "PRIMARY KEY"
1066
1067    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
1068        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1069        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1070        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
1071        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
1072        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "on_conflict")
1073        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1074        nulls_sql = " NULLS NOT DISTINCT" if expression.args.get("nulls") else ""
1075        return f"UNIQUE{nulls_sql}{this}{index_type}{on_conflict}"
1076
1077    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
1078        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1079
1080    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
1081        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1082        kind = self.dialect.INVERSE_CREATABLE_KIND_MAPPING.get(kind) or kind
1083        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
1084        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
1085
1086        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
1087
1088        properties_sql = ""
1089        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
1090            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
1091        ):
1092            properties_sql = self.sql(
1093                exp.Properties(
1094                    expressions=[
1095                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
1096                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
1097                    ]
1098                )
1099            )
1100
1101            if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA):
1102                properties_sql = self.sep() + properties_sql
1103            elif not self.pretty:
1104                # Standalone POST_WITH properties need a leading whitespace in non-pretty mode
1105                properties_sql = f" {properties_sql}"
1106
1107        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
1108        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
1109
1110        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1111        if expression_sql:
1112            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
1113
1114            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
1115                postalias_props_sql = ""
1116                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
1117                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
1118                        exp.Properties(
1119                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
1120                        ),
1121                        wrapped=False,
1122                    )
1123                postalias_props_sql = f" {postalias_props_sql}" if postalias_props_sql else ""
1124                expression_sql = f" AS{postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
1125
1126        postindex_props_sql = ""
1127        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
1128            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
1129                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
1130                wrapped=False,
1131                prefix=" ",
1132            )
1133
1134        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
1135        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
1136        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
1137
1138        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
1139        refresh = " OR REFRESH" if expression.args.get("refresh") else ""
1140        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1141
1142        clustered = expression.args.get("clustered")
1143        if clustered is None:
1144            clustered_sql = ""
1145        elif clustered:
1146            clustered_sql = " CLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
1147        else:
1148            clustered_sql = " NONCLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
1149
1150        postcreate_props_sql = ""
1151        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
1152            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
1153                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
1154                sep=" ",
1155                prefix=" ",
1156                wrapped=False,
1157            )
1158
1159        modifiers = "".join((clustered_sql, replace, refresh, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
1160
1161        postexpression_props_sql = ""
1162        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
1163            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
1164                exp.Properties(
1165                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
1166                ),
1167                sep=" ",
1168                prefix=" ",
1169                wrapped=False,
1170            )
1171
1172        concurrently = " CONCURRENTLY" if expression.args.get("concurrently") else ""
1173        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1174        no_schema_binding = (
1175            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
1176        )
1177
1178        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
1179        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
1180
1181        if kind in self.EXPRESSION_PRECEDES_PROPERTIES_CREATABLES:
1182            properties_expression = f"{expression_sql}{properties_sql}"
1183        else:
1184            properties_expression = f"{properties_sql}{expression_sql}"
1185
1186        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{concurrently}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_expression}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
1187        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
1188
1189    def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: exp.SequenceProperties) -> str:
1190        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1191        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
1192        increment = self.sql(expression, "increment")
1193        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
1194        minvalue = self.sql(expression, "minvalue")
1195        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
1196        maxvalue = self.sql(expression, "maxvalue")
1197        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
1198        owned = self.sql(expression, "owned")
1199        owned = f" OWNED BY {owned}" if owned else ""
1200
1201        cache = expression.args.get("cache")
1202        if cache is None:
1203            cache_str = ""
1204        elif cache is True:
1205            cache_str = " CACHE"
1206        else:
1207            cache_str = f" CACHE {cache}"
1208
1209        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1210        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1211
1212        return f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cache_str}{options}{owned}".lstrip()
1213
1214    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
1215        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1216        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
1217        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
1218        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
1219
1220    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
1221        style = expression.args.get("style")
1222        style = f" {style}" if style else ""
1223        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1224        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1225        format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1226        format = f" {format}" if format else ""
1227
1228        return f"DESCRIBE{style}{format} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{partition}"
1229
1230    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
1231        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
1232        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"
1233
1234    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1235        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
1236        if with_:
1237            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
1238        return sql
1239
1240    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
1241        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1242        recursive = (
1243            "RECURSIVE "
1244            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
1245            else ""
1246        )
1247        search = self.sql(expression, "search")
1248        search = f" {search}" if search else ""
1249
1250        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}{search}"
1251
1252    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
1253        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
1254        if alias:
1255            alias.add_comments(expression.pop_comments())
1256
1257        alias_sql = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1258
1259        materialized = expression.args.get("materialized")
1260        if materialized is False:
1261            materialized = "NOT MATERIALIZED "
1262        elif materialized:
1263            materialized = "MATERIALIZED "
1264
1265        return f"{alias_sql} AS {materialized or ''}{self.wrap(expression)}"
1266
1267    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
1268        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
1269        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1270        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1271
1272        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
1273            columns = ""
1274            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
1275
1276        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1277            alias = self._next_name()
1278
1279        return f"{alias}{columns}"
1280
1281    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
1282        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1283        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
1284            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
1285        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
1286
1287    def hexstring_sql(
1288        self, expression: exp.HexString, binary_function_repr: t.Optional[str] = None
1289    ) -> str:
1290        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1291        is_integer_type = expression.args.get("is_integer")
1292
1293        if (is_integer_type and not self.dialect.HEX_STRING_IS_INTEGER_TYPE) or (
1294            not self.dialect.HEX_START and not binary_function_repr
1295        ):
1296            # Integer representation will be returned if:
1297            # - The read dialect treats the hex value as integer literal but not the write
1298            # - The transpilation is not supported (write dialect hasn't set HEX_START or the param flag)
1299            return f"{int(this, 16)}"
1300
1301        if not is_integer_type:
1302            # Read dialect treats the hex value as BINARY/BLOB
1303            if binary_function_repr:
1304                # The write dialect supports the transpilation to its equivalent BINARY/BLOB
1305                return self.func(binary_function_repr, exp.Literal.string(this))
1306            if self.dialect.HEX_STRING_IS_INTEGER_TYPE:
1307                # The write dialect does not support the transpilation, it'll treat the hex value as INTEGER
1308                self.unsupported("Unsupported transpilation from BINARY/BLOB hex string")
1309
1310        return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
1311
1312    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
1313        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1314        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
1315            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
1316        return this
1317
1318    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
1319        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1320        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
1321
1322        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
1323            escape_substitute = r"\\\1"
1324            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.UNICODE_START, self.dialect.UNICODE_END
1325        else:
1326            escape_substitute = r"\\u\1"
1327            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.QUOTE_START, self.dialect.QUOTE_END
1328
1329        if escape:
1330            escape_pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
1331            escape_sql = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE else ""
1332        else:
1333            escape_pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
1334            escape_sql = ""
1335
1336        if not self.dialect.UNICODE_START or (escape and not self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE):
1337            this = escape_pattern.sub(escape_substitute, this)
1338
1339        return f"{left_quote}{this}{right_quote}{escape_sql}"
1340
1341    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
1342        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"), escape_backslash=False)
1343        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
1344
1345    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1346        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1347        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1348        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
1349        return f"{this}{specifier}"
1350
1351    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
1352        nested = ""
1353        values = ""
1354        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1355
1356        type_value = expression.this
1357        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
1358            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1359        else:
1360            type_sql = (
1361                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
1362                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
1363                else type_value
1364            )
1365
1366        if interior:
1367            if expression.args.get("nested"):
1368                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
1369                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
1370                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
1371                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
1372                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
1373            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
1374                nested = f" {interior}"
1375            else:
1376                nested = f"({interior})"
1377
1378        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
1379        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
1380            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
1381            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
1382        ):
1383            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
1384
1385        return type_sql
1386
1387    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
1388        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1389        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
1390        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
1391        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
1392
1393    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
1394        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1395        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
1396        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1397        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1398        cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
1399        cluster = f" {cluster}" if cluster else ""
1400        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1401        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1402        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1403        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
1404        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
1405        if self.RETURNING_END:
1406            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{cluster}{where}{returning}{limit}"
1407        else:
1408            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{cluster}{where}{limit}"
1409        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
1410
1411    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
1412        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1413        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1414        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1415        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1416        kind = self.dialect.INVERSE_CREATABLE_KIND_MAPPING.get(kind) or kind
1417        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1418        concurrently_sql = " CONCURRENTLY" if expression.args.get("concurrently") else ""
1419        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
1420        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
1421        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1422        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1423        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1424        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1425        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1426        return f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{concurrently_sql}{exists_sql}{this}{on_cluster}{expressions}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
1427
1428    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
1429        op_type = type(expression)
1430        op_name = op_type.key.upper()
1431
1432        distinct = expression.args.get("distinct")
1433        if (
1434            distinct is False
1435            and op_type in (exp.Except, exp.Intersect)
1436            and not self.EXCEPT_INTERSECT_SUPPORT_ALL_CLAUSE
1437        ):
1438            self.unsupported(f"{op_name} ALL is not supported")
1439
1440        default_distinct = self.dialect.SET_OP_DISTINCT_BY_DEFAULT[op_type]
1441
1442        if distinct is None:
1443            distinct = default_distinct
1444            if distinct is None:
1445                self.unsupported(f"{op_name} requires DISTINCT or ALL to be specified")
1446
1447        if distinct is default_distinct:
1448            distinct_or_all = ""
1449        else:
1450            distinct_or_all = " DISTINCT" if distinct else " ALL"
1451
1452        side_kind = " ".join(filter(None, [expression.side, expression.kind]))
1453        side_kind = f"{side_kind} " if side_kind else ""
1454
1455        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1456        on = self.expressions(expression, key="on", flat=True)
1457        on = f" ON ({on})" if on else ""
1458
1459        return f"{side_kind}{op_name}{distinct_or_all}{by_name}{on}"
1460
1461    def set_operations(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
1462        if not self.SET_OP_MODIFIERS:
1463            limit = expression.args.get("limit")
1464            order = expression.args.get("order")
1465
1466            if limit or order:
1467                select = self._move_ctes_to_top_level(
1468                    exp.subquery(expression, "_l_0", copy=False).select("*", copy=False)
1469                )
1470
1471                if limit:
1472                    select = select.limit(limit.pop(), copy=False)
1473                if order:
1474                    select = select.order_by(order.pop(), copy=False)
1475                return self.sql(select)
1476
1477        sqls: t.List[str] = []
1478        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
1479
1480        while stack:
1481            node = stack.pop()
1482
1483            if isinstance(node, exp.SetOperation):
1484                stack.append(node.expression)
1485                stack.append(
1486                    self.maybe_comment(
1487                        self.set_operation(node), comments=node.comments, separated=True
1488                    )
1489                )
1490                stack.append(node.this)
1491            else:
1492                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
1493
1494        this = self.sep().join(sqls)
1495        this = self.query_modifiers(expression, this)
1496        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, this)
1497
1498    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1499        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1500        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
1501        count = self.sql(expression, "count")
1502        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1503        limit_options = self.sql(expression, "limit_options")
1504        limit_options = f"{limit_options}" if limit_options else " ROWS ONLY"
1505        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count}{limit_options}"
1506
1507    def limitoptions_sql(self, expression: exp.LimitOptions) -> str:
1508        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1509        rows = " ROWS" if expression.args.get("rows") else ""
1510        with_ties = " WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else ""
1511        if not with_ties and rows:
1512            with_ties = " ONLY"
1513        return f"{percent}{rows}{with_ties}"
1514
1515    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1516        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1517            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1518            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1519            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1520
1521        agg = expression.this
1522        agg_arg = agg.this
1523        cond = expression.expression.this
1524        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1525        return self.sql(agg)
1526
1527    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1528        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1529            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1530            return ""
1531
1532        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
1533
1534    def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexParameters) -> str:
1535        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1536        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1537        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1538        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1539        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1540        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1541        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1542        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
1543        if include:
1544            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
1545        with_storage = self.expressions(expression, key="with_storage", flat=True)
1546        with_storage = f" WITH ({with_storage})" if with_storage else ""
1547        tablespace = self.sql(expression, "tablespace")
1548        tablespace = f" USING INDEX TABLESPACE {tablespace}" if tablespace else ""
1549        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
1550        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
1551
1552        return f"{using}{columns}{include}{with_storage}{tablespace}{partition_by}{where}{on}"
1553
1554    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1555        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1556        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1557        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1558        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1559        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1560        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1561        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1562
1563        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1564
1565        params = self.sql(expression, "params")
1566        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{params}"
1567
1568    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1569        text = expression.name
1570        lower = text.lower()
1571        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1572        text = text.replace(self._identifier_end, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1573        if (
1574            expression.quoted
1575            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1576            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1577            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1578        ):
1579            text = f"{self._identifier_start}{text}{self._identifier_end}"
1580        return text
1581
1582    def hex_sql(self, expression: exp.Hex) -> str:
1583        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1584        if self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1585            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1586
1587        return text
1588
1589    def lowerhex_sql(self, expression: exp.LowerHex) -> str:
1590        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1591        if not self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1592            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1593        return text
1594
1595    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1596        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1597        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1598        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1599        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1600        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
1601
1602    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1603        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1604        return f"{prefix}{string}"
1605
1606    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1607        partition_keyword = "SUBPARTITION" if expression.args.get("subpartition") else "PARTITION"
1608        return f"{partition_keyword}({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1609
1610    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1611        root_properties = []
1612        with_properties = []
1613
1614        for p in expression.expressions:
1615            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1616            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1617                with_properties.append(p)
1618            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1619                root_properties.append(p)
1620
1621        root_props = self.root_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties))
1622        with_props = self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1623
1624        if root_props and with_props and not self.pretty:
1625            with_props = " " + with_props
1626
1627        return root_props + with_props
1628
1629    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1630        if properties.expressions:
1631            return self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1632        return ""
1633
1634    def properties(
1635        self,
1636        properties: exp.Properties,
1637        prefix: str = "",
1638        sep: str = ", ",
1639        suffix: str = "",
1640        wrapped: bool = True,
1641    ) -> str:
1642        if properties.expressions:
1643            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1644            if expressions:
1645                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1646                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1647        return ""
1648
1649    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1650        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg(self.WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX, sep=""))
1651
1652    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1653        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1654        for p in properties.expressions:
1655            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1656            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1657                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1658            else:
1659                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1660
1661        return properties_locs
1662
1663    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1664        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1665            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1666        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
1667
1668    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1669        property_cls = expression.__class__
1670        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1671            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1672
1673        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1674        if not property_name:
1675            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1676
1677        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1678
1679    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1680        if self.SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE:
1681            options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1682            options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1683
1684            like = f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1685            if self.LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Schema):
1686                like = f"({like})"
1687
1688            return like
1689
1690        if expression.expressions:
1691            self.unsupported("Transpilation of LIKE property options is unsupported")
1692
1693        select = exp.select("*").from_(expression.this).limit(0)
1694        return f"AS {self.sql(select)}"
1695
1696    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1697        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1698        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1699        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1700
1701    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1702        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1703        local = expression.args.get("local")
1704        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1705        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1706        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1707        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1708        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1709
1710    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1711        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1712        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1713        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1714
1715    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1716        if expression.args.get("default"):
1717            property = "DEFAULT"
1718        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1719            property = "ON"
1720        else:
1721            property = "OFF"
1722        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1723
1724    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1725        if expression.args.get("no"):
1726            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1727        if expression.args.get("default"):
1728            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1729
1730        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1731        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1732
1733    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1734        default = expression.args.get("default")
1735        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1736        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1737        if default or minimum or maximum:
1738            if default:
1739                prop = "DEFAULT"
1740            elif minimum:
1741                prop = "MINIMUM"
1742            else:
1743                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1744            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1745        units = expression.args.get("units")
1746        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1747        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1748
1749    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1750        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1751        always = expression.args.get("always")
1752        default = expression.args.get("default")
1753        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1754        never = expression.args.get("never")
1755
1756        if autotemp is not None:
1757            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1758        elif always:
1759            prop = "ALWAYS"
1760        elif default:
1761            prop = "DEFAULT"
1762        elif manual:
1763            prop = "MANUAL"
1764        elif never:
1765            prop = "NEVER"
1766        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1767
1768    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1769        no = expression.args.get("no")
1770        no = " NO" if no else ""
1771        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1772        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1773        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1774        target = f" {target}" if target else ""
1775        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{target}"
1776
1777    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1778        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1779            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1780        if expression.this:
1781            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1782            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1783            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1784
1785        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1786        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1787        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
1788
1789    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1790        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1791
1792        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1793        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1794            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1795        else:
1796            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1797
1798        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
1799
1800    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1801        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1802        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1803        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1804        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1805        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1806        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1807        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1808
1809    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1810        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1811        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1812        statistics_sql = ""
1813        if statistics is not None:
1814            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1815        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1816
1817    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1818        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1819        this = f"HISTORY_TABLE={this}" if this else ""
1820        data_consistency: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "data_consistency")
1821        data_consistency = (
1822            f"DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency}" if data_consistency else None
1823        )
1824        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
1825        retention_period = (
1826            f"HISTORY_RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
1827        )
1828
1829        if this:
1830            on_sql = self.func("ON", this, data_consistency, retention_period)
1831        else:
1832            on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
1833
1834        sql = f"SYSTEM_VERSIONING={on_sql}"
1835
1836        return f"WITH({sql})" if expression.args.get("with") else sql
1837
1838    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1839        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1840        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1841
1842        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1843            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1844        else:
1845            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"
1846
1847        stored = self.sql(expression, "stored")
1848        stored = f" {stored}" if stored else ""
1849        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1850        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1851        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1852        is_function = expression.args.get("is_function")
1853        if is_function:
1854            this = f"{this} FUNCTION"
1855        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1856
1857        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1858        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1859        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1860        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1861        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1862        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1863        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1864        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1865
1866        if self.RETURNING_END:
1867            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{on_conflict}{returning}"
1868        else:
1869            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{on_conflict}"
1870
1871        partition_by = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1872        partition_by = f" {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1873        settings = self.sql(expression, "settings")
1874        settings = f" {settings}" if settings else ""
1875
1876        source = self.sql(expression, "source")
1877        source = f"TABLE {source}" if source else ""
1878
1879        sql = f"INSERT{hint}{alternative}{ignore}{this}{stored}{by_name}{exists}{partition_by}{settings}{where}{expression_sql}{source}"
1880        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1881
1882    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1883        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1884
1885    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1886        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1887        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1888        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1889        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1890        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
1891
1892    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1893        return expression.name
1894
1895    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1896        return expression.name
1897
1898    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1899        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1900
1901        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1902        constraint = f" ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}" if constraint else ""
1903
1904        conflict_keys = self.expressions(expression, key="conflict_keys", flat=True)
1905        conflict_keys = f"({conflict_keys}) " if conflict_keys else " "
1906        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
1907
1908        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1909        if expressions:
1910            set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1911            expressions = f" {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1912
1913        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1914        return f"{conflict}{constraint}{conflict_keys}{action}{expressions}{where}"
1915
1916    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1917        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1918
1919    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1920        fields = self.sql(expression, "fields")
1921        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1922        escaped = self.sql(expression, "escaped")
1923        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1924        items = self.sql(expression, "collection_items")
1925        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1926        keys = self.sql(expression, "map_keys")
1927        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1928        lines = self.sql(expression, "lines")
1929        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1930        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
1931        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1932        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1933
1934    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1935        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1936
1937    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1938        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1939        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1940        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1941        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1942
1943    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
1944        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1945        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1946        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1947        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
1948
1949    def table_parts(self, expression: exp.Table) -> str:
1950        return ".".join(
1951            self.sql(part)
1952            for part in (
1953                expression.args.get("catalog"),
1954                expression.args.get("db"),
1955                expression.args.get("this"),
1956            )
1957            if part is not None
1958        )
1959
1960    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1961        table = self.table_parts(expression)
1962        only = "ONLY " if expression.args.get("only") else ""
1963        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1964        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1965        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1966        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1967        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1968        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1969
1970        sample = self.sql(expression, "sample")
1971        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE:
1972            sample_pre_alias = sample
1973            sample_post_alias = ""
1974        else:
1975            sample_pre_alias = ""
1976            sample_post_alias = sample
1977
1978        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1979        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1980        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
1981        joins = self.indent(
1982            self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", flat=True), skip_first=True
1983        )
1984        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1985
1986        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1987        if file_format:
1988            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1989            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1990            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1991
1992        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
1993        if ordinality:
1994            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
1995            alias = ""
1996
1997        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
1998        if when:
1999            table = f"{table} {when}"
2000
2001        changes = self.sql(expression, "changes")
2002        changes = f" {changes}" if changes else ""
2003
2004        rows_from = self.expressions(expression, key="rows_from")
2005        if rows_from:
2006            table = f"ROWS FROM {self.wrap(rows_from)}"
2007
2008        return f"{only}{table}{changes}{partition}{version}{file_format}{sample_pre_alias}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{sample_post_alias}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
2009
2010    def tablefromrows_sql(self, expression: exp.TableFromRows) -> str:
2011        table = self.func("TABLE", expression.this)
2012        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2013        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2014        sample = self.sql(expression, "sample")
2015        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
2016        joins = self.indent(
2017            self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", flat=True), skip_first=True
2018        )
2019        return f"{table}{alias}{pivots}{sample}{joins}"
2020
2021    def tablesample_sql(
2022        self,
2023        expression: exp.TableSample,
2024        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
2025    ) -> str:
2026        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
2027        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
2028        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
2029        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
2030        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
2031        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
2032        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
2033        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
2034        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
2035
2036        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
2037        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
2038            size = f"{size} ROWS"
2039
2040        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
2041        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
2042            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
2043
2044        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
2045        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
2046            expr = f"({expr})"
2047
2048        return f" {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}"
2049
2050    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
2051        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2052        direction = "UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT"
2053
2054        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2055
2056        if expression.this:
2057            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2058            if not expressions:
2059                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
2060
2061            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
2062            into = self.sql(expression, "into")
2063            into = f"{self.seg('INTO')} {into}" if into else ""
2064            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
2065            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
2066            return f"{direction} {this}{on}{into}{using}{group}"
2067
2068        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2069        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2070
2071        fields = self.expressions(
2072            expression,
2073            "fields",
2074            sep=" ",
2075            dynamic=True,
2076            new_line=True,
2077            skip_first=True,
2078            skip_last=True,
2079        )
2080
2081        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
2082        if include_nulls is not None:
2083            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
2084        else:
2085            nulls = ""
2086
2087        default_on_null = self.sql(expression, "default_on_null")
2088        default_on_null = f" DEFAULT ON NULL ({default_on_null})" if default_on_null else ""
2089        return f"{self.seg(direction)}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {fields}{default_on_null}{group}){alias}"
2090
2091    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
2092        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
2093        kind = expression.text("kind")
2094        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2095        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
2096
2097    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
2098        return f"({self.expressions(expression, dynamic=True, new_line=True, skip_first=True, skip_last=True)})"
2099
2100    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
2101        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2102        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2103        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
2104        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
2105        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
2106        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2107        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
2108        if self.RETURNING_END:
2109            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
2110        else:
2111            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
2112        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
2113        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2114
2115    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
2116        values_as_table = values_as_table and self.VALUES_AS_TABLE
2117
2118        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
2119        if values_as_table or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
2120            args = self.expressions(expression)
2121            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2122            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
2123            values = (
2124                f"({values})"
2125                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES
2126                and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, (exp.From, exp.Table)))
2127                else values
2128            )
2129            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
2130
2131        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
2132        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
2133        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
2134
2135        selects: t.List[exp.Query] = []
2136
2137        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
2138            row = tup.expressions
2139
2140            if i == 0 and column_names:
2141                row = [
2142                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
2143                ]
2144
2145            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
2146
2147        if self.pretty:
2148            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
2149            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
2150            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
2151            query = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
2152            return self.subquery_sql(query.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False))
2153
2154        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
2155        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
2156        return f"({unions}){alias}"
2157
2158    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
2159        return self.sql(expression, "this")
2160
2161    @unsupported_args("expressions")
2162    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
2163        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
2164        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
2165        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2166
2167    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
2168        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2169
2170    def groupingsets_sql(self, expression: exp.GroupingSets) -> str:
2171        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
2172        return f"GROUPING SETS {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}"
2173
2174    def rollup_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollup) -> str:
2175        expressions = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
2176        return f"ROLLUP {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else "WITH ROLLUP"
2177
2178    def cube_sql(self, expression: exp.Cube) -> str:
2179        expressions = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
2180        return f"CUBE {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else "WITH CUBE"
2181
2182    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
2183        group_by_all = expression.args.get("all")
2184        if group_by_all is True:
2185            modifier = " ALL"
2186        elif group_by_all is False:
2187            modifier = " DISTINCT"
2188        else:
2189            modifier = ""
2190
2191        group_by = self.op_expressions(f"GROUP BY{modifier}", expression)
2192
2193        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets")
2194        cube = self.expressions(expression, key="cube")
2195        rollup = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup")
2196
2197        groupings = csv(
2198            self.seg(grouping_sets) if grouping_sets else "",
2199            self.seg(cube) if cube else "",
2200            self.seg(rollup) if rollup else "",
2201            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
2202            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
2203        )
2204
2205        if (
2206            expression.expressions
2207            and groupings
2208            and groupings.strip() not in ("WITH CUBE", "WITH ROLLUP")
2209        ):
2210            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
2211
2212        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
2213
2214    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
2215        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2216        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2217
2218    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
2219        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
2220        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
2221        nocycle = " NOCYCLE" if expression.args.get("nocycle") else ""
2222        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
2223        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY{nocycle} {connect}")
2224        return start + connect
2225
2226    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
2227        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2228
2229    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
2230        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
2231            side = None
2232        else:
2233            side = expression.side
2234
2235        op_sql = " ".join(
2236            op
2237            for op in (
2238                expression.method,
2239                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
2240                side,
2241                expression.kind,
2242                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
2243            )
2244            if op
2245        )
2246        match_cond = self.sql(expression, "match_condition")
2247        match_cond = f" MATCH_CONDITION ({match_cond})" if match_cond else ""
2248        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
2249        using = expression.args.get("using")
2250
2251        if not on_sql and using:
2252            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
2253
2254        this = expression.this
2255        this_sql = self.sql(this)
2256
2257        exprs = self.expressions(expression)
2258        if exprs:
2259            this_sql = f"{this_sql},{self.seg(exprs)}"
2260
2261        if on_sql:
2262            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
2263            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
2264            if using:
2265                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
2266            else:
2267                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
2268        elif not op_sql:
2269            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
2270                return f" {this_sql}"
2271
2272            return f", {this_sql}"
2273
2274        if op_sql != "STRAIGHT_JOIN":
2275            op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
2276
2277        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{match_cond}{on_sql}"
2278
2279    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
2280        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2281        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
2282        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2283
2284    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2285        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
2286
2287        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
2288        if cross_apply is True:
2289            op = "INNER JOIN "
2290        elif cross_apply is False:
2291            op = "LEFT JOIN "
2292        else:
2293            op = ""
2294
2295        return f"{op}LATERAL"
2296
2297    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2298        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2299
2300        if expression.args.get("view"):
2301            alias = expression.args["alias"]
2302            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
2303            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
2304            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
2305            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
2306            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
2307
2308        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2309        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2310
2311        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
2312        if ordinality:
2313            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
2314            alias = ""
2315
2316        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}{ordinality}"
2317
2318    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
2319        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2320
2321        args = [
2322            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
2323            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
2324            if e
2325        ]
2326
2327        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
2328        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if top and any(not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
2329        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2330        limit_options = self.sql(expression, "limit_options")
2331        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2332
2333        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}{limit_options}{expressions}"
2334
2335    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
2336        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2337        value = expression.expression
2338        value = self._simplify_unless_literal(value) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else value
2339        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2340        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2341        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(value)}{expressions}"
2342
2343    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
2344        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2345        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
2346        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2347        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2348        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2349        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2350        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
2351        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
2352
2353    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
2354        expressions = f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
2355        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
2356        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
2357
2358    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
2359        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2360
2361    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
2362        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
2363            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
2364            return ""
2365
2366        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
2367        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2368        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2369        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
2370
2371        if wait is not None:
2372            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
2373                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
2374            else:
2375                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
2376
2377        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
2378
2379    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
2380        text = expression.this or ""
2381        if expression.is_string:
2382            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2383        return text
2384
2385    def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
2386        if self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES:
2387            to_escaped = self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES
2388            text = "".join(
2389                to_escaped.get(ch, ch) if escape_backslash or ch != "\\" else ch for ch in text
2390            )
2391
2392        return self._replace_line_breaks(text).replace(
2393            self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end
2394        )
2395
2396    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
2397        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
2398        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
2399        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
2400        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2401        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
2402        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
2403        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
2404        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
2405        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
2406        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
2407        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
2408
2409    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2410        return "NULL"
2411
2412    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
2413        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
2414
2415    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2416        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2417        this = f"{this} " if this else this
2418        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
2419        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
2420
2421    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
2422        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
2423        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
2424        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2425        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2426        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
2427        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
2428        interpolated_values = [
2429            f"{self.sql(e, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(e, 'this')}"
2430            if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
2431            else self.sql(e, "this")
2432            for e in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
2433        ]
2434        interpolate = (
2435            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
2436        )
2437        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}{interpolate}"
2438
2439    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
2440        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
2441
2442    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
2443        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
2444
2445    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
2446        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
2447
2448    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
2449        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
2450        asc = not desc
2451
2452        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
2453        nulls_last = not nulls_first
2454        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
2455        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
2456        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
2457
2458        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2459
2460        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
2461        nulls_sort_change = ""
2462        if nulls_first and (
2463            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
2464        ):
2465            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
2466        elif (
2467            nulls_last
2468            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
2469            and not nulls_are_last
2470        ):
2471            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
2472
2473        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
2474        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
2475            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
2476            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
2477                self.unsupported(
2478                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
2479                )
2480                nulls_sort_change = ""
2481            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is False and (
2482                (asc and nulls_sort_change == " NULLS LAST")
2483                or (desc and nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST")
2484            ):
2485                # BigQuery does not allow these ordering/nulls combinations when used under
2486                # an aggregation func or under a window containing one
2487                ancestor = expression.find_ancestor(exp.AggFunc, exp.Window, exp.Select)
2488
2489                if isinstance(ancestor, exp.Window):
2490                    ancestor = ancestor.this
2491                if isinstance(ancestor, exp.AggFunc):
2492                    self.unsupported(
2493                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported for aggregate functions with {sort_order} sort order"
2494                    )
2495                    nulls_sort_change = ""
2496            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
2497                if expression.this.is_int:
2498                    self.unsupported(
2499                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
2500                    )
2501                elif not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Rand):
2502                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
2503                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
2504                nulls_sort_change = ""
2505
2506        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
2507        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
2508
2509        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
2510
2511    def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
2512        window_frame = self.sql(expression, "window_frame")
2513        window_frame = f"{window_frame} " if window_frame else ""
2514
2515        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2516
2517        return f"{window_frame}{this}"
2518
2519    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2520        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2521        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2522        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
2523        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
2524        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
2525        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
2526        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
2527        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
2528        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
2529        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
2530        definition_sqls = [
2531            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
2532            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
2533        ]
2534        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
2535        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
2536        body = "".join(
2537            (
2538                partition,
2539                order,
2540                measures,
2541                rows,
2542                after,
2543                pattern,
2544                define,
2545            )
2546        )
2547        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2548        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
2549        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
2550
2551    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2552        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2553
2554        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
2555            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
2556        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
2557            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
2558
2559        return csv(
2560            *sqls,
2561            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
2562            self.sql(expression, "match"),
2563            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
2564            self.sql(expression, "prewhere"),
2565            self.sql(expression, "where"),
2566            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
2567            self.sql(expression, "group"),
2568            self.sql(expression, "having"),
2569            *[gen(self, expression) for gen in self.AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS.values()],
2570            self.sql(expression, "order"),
2571            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch), limit),
2572            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
2573            self.options_modifier(expression),
2574            sep="",
2575        )
2576
2577    def options_modifier(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> str:
2578        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
2579        return f" {options}" if options else ""
2580
2581    def queryoption_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryOption) -> str:
2582        return ""
2583
2584    def offset_limit_modifiers(
2585        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
2586    ) -> t.List[str]:
2587        return [
2588            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
2589            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
2590        ]
2591
2592    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
2593        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
2594        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
2595        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
2596
2597    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
2598        into = expression.args.get("into")
2599        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2600            into.pop()
2601
2602        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
2603        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
2604        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
2605        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2606
2607        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2608        if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP:
2609            top = self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
2610            limit.pop()
2611        else:
2612            top = ""
2613
2614        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2615
2616        if kind:
2617            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
2618                kind = f" AS {kind}"
2619            else:
2620                if kind == "STRUCT":
2621                    expressions = self.expressions(
2622                        sqls=[
2623                            self.sql(
2624                                exp.Struct(
2625                                    expressions=[
2626                                        exp.PropertyEQ(this=e.args.get("alias"), expression=e.this)
2627                                        if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
2628                                        else e
2629                                        for e in expression.expressions
2630                                    ]
2631                                )
2632                            )
2633                        ]
2634                    )
2635                kind = ""
2636
2637        operation_modifiers = self.expressions(expression, key="operation_modifiers", sep=" ")
2638        operation_modifiers = f"{self.sep()}{operation_modifiers}" if operation_modifiers else ""
2639
2640        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
2641        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
2642        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
2643        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
2644        sql = self.query_modifiers(
2645            expression,
2646            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{operation_modifiers}{kind}{expressions}",
2647            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
2648            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
2649        )
2650
2651        # If both the CTE and SELECT clauses have comments, generate the latter earlier
2652        if expression.args.get("with"):
2653            sql = self.maybe_comment(sql, expression)
2654            expression.pop_comments()
2655
2656        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2657
2658        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2659            if into.args.get("temporary"):
2660                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
2661            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
2662                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
2663            else:
2664                table_kind = ""
2665            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"
2666
2667        return sql
2668
2669    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2670        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2671        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
2672        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
2673
2674    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2675        if expression.expressions:
2676            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2677        return ""
2678
2679    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
2680        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
2681        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_EXCEPT)} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
2682        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
2683        replace = f"{self.seg('REPLACE')} ({replace})" if replace else ""
2684        rename = self.expressions(expression, key="rename", flat=True)
2685        rename = f"{self.seg('RENAME')} ({rename})" if rename else ""
2686        return f"*{except_}{replace}{rename}"
2687
2688    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
2689        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2690        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
2691
2692    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
2693        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2694        kind = expression.text("kind")
2695        if kind:
2696            kind = f"{kind}."
2697        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
2698
2699    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
2700        return f"{self.NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN}{expression.name}" if expression.this else "?"
2701
2702    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
2703        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2704        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2705        sample = self.sql(expression, "sample")
2706        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and sample:
2707            alias = f"{sample}{alias}"
2708
2709            # Set to None so it's not generated again by self.query_modifiers()
2710            expression.set("sample", None)
2711
2712        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
2713        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2714        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2715
2716    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2717        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2718        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2719
2720    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2721        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2722
2723        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2724        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2725
2726        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2727            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2728                alias.append("columns", offset)
2729
2730        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2731            columns = alias.columns
2732            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2733        else:
2734            alias = self.sql(alias)
2735
2736        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2737        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2738            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2739        else:
2740            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2741                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2742            elif offset:
2743                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2744            else:
2745                suffix = alias
2746
2747        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
2748
2749    def prewhere_sql(self, expression: exp.PreWhere) -> str:
2750        return ""
2751
2752    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2753        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2754        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2755
2756    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2757        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2758        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2759        order = expression.args.get("order")
2760        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2761        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2762        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2763        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2764
2765        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2766
2767        first = expression.args.get("first")
2768        if first is None:
2769            first = ""
2770        else:
2771            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2772
2773        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2774            return f"{this} {alias}"
2775
2776        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2777        return f"{this} ({args})"
2778
2779    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2780        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2781        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
2782
2783    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2784        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2785        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2786        end = (
2787            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2788            or "CURRENT ROW"
2789        )
2790        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
2791
2792    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2793        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2794        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2795        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
2796
2797    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2798        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2799        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2800        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2801        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
2802
2803    def bracket_offset_expressions(
2804        self, expression: exp.Bracket, index_offset: t.Optional[int] = None
2805    ) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2806        return apply_index_offset(
2807            expression.this,
2808            expression.expressions,
2809            (index_offset or self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET) - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
2810            dialect=self.dialect,
2811        )
2812
2813    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2814        expressions = self.bracket_offset_expressions(expression)
2815        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2816        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
2817
2818    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2819        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
2820
2821    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2822        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2823        if isinstance(expression.this, (*exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES, exp.Paren)):
2824            if isinstance(expression.this, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES):
2825                this = self.wrap(this)
2826            return f"ANY{this}"
2827        return f"ANY {this}"
2828
2829    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2830        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
2831
2832    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2833        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2834        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2835
2836        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2837            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2838            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2839
2840        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2841
2842        if default:
2843            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2844
2845        statements.append("END")
2846
2847        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(statements):
2848            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2849
2850        return " ".join(statements)
2851
2852    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2853        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2854        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2855        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
2856
2857    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2858        order = expression.args.get("order")
2859        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2860        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
2861
2862    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2863        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2864        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2865        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
2866
2867    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2868        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2869
2870        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2871            func_name = "LTRIM"
2872        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2873            func_name = "RTRIM"
2874        else:
2875            func_name = "TRIM"
2876
2877        return self.func(func_name, expression.this, expression.expression)
2878
2879    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2880        args = expression.expressions
2881        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
2882            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
2883
2884        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2885            args = [exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in args]
2886
2887        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
2888            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
2889
2890        return args
2891
2892    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
2893        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2894
2895        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
2896        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
2897            return self.sql(expressions[0])
2898
2899        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
2900
2901    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
2902        return self.func(
2903            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2904        )
2905
2906    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2907        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2908        return f"CHECK ({this})"
2909
2910    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2911        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2912        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2913        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2914        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2915        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2916        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2917        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2918        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2919        return f"FOREIGN KEY{expressions}{reference}{delete}{update}"
2920
2921    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2922        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2923        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2924        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2925        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
2926
2927    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2928        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
2929
2930    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2931        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2932        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2933        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
2934
2935    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2936        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2937
2938    def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPath) -> str:
2939        path = self.expressions(expression, sep="", flat=True).lstrip(".")
2940
2941        if expression.args.get("escape"):
2942            path = self.escape_str(path)
2943
2944        if self.QUOTE_JSON_PATH:
2945            path = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{path}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2946
2947        return path
2948
2949    def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | exp.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2950        if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONPathPart):
2951            transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
2952            if not callable(transform):
2953                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported JSONPathPart type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2954                return ""
2955
2956            return transform(self, expression)
2957
2958        if isinstance(expression, int):
2959            return str(expression)
2960
2961        if self._quote_json_path_key_using_brackets and self.JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE:
2962            escaped = expression.replace("'", "\\'")
2963            escaped = f"\\'{expression}\\'"
2964        else:
2965            escaped = expression.replace('"', '\\"')
2966            escaped = f'"{escaped}"'
2967
2968        return escaped
2969
2970    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2971        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
2972
2973    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2974        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2975        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2976
2977        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2978        if unique_keys is not None:
2979            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2980        else:
2981            unique_keys = ""
2982
2983        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2984        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2985        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2986        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2987
2988        return self.func(
2989            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
2990            *expression.expressions,
2991            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2992        )
2993
2994    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2995        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)
2996
2997    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2998        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2999        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
3000        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
3001        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
3002        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
3003        return self.func(
3004            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
3005        )
3006
3007    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
3008        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3009        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
3010        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
3011        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
3012        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
3013        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
3014        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
3015        return self.func(
3016            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
3017            this,
3018            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
3019        )
3020
3021    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
3022        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
3023        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
3024        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
3025
3026        if nested_schema:
3027            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
3028
3029        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3030        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3031        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
3032        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
3033
3034    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
3035        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
3036
3037    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
3038        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3039        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
3040        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
3041        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
3042        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
3043        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
3044        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
3045        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3046        return self.func(
3047            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
3048        )
3049
3050    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
3051        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3052        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3053        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
3054        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
3055        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
3056        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
3057
3058    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
3059        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3060        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
3061        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
3062        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
3063        with_ = (
3064            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
3065            if expressions
3066            else ""
3067        )
3068        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
3069
3070    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
3071        query = expression.args.get("query")
3072        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
3073        field = expression.args.get("field")
3074        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
3075
3076        if query:
3077            in_sql = self.sql(query)
3078        elif unnest:
3079            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
3080        elif field:
3081            in_sql = self.sql(field)
3082        else:
3083            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, dynamic=True, new_line=True, skip_first=True, skip_last=True)})"
3084
3085        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
3086
3087    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
3088        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
3089
3090    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
3091        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
3092        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
3093            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
3094        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
3095
3096        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
3097            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
3098            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
3099
3100        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3101        if this:
3102            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
3103            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
3104
3105        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
3106
3107    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
3108        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3109
3110    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
3111        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3112        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3113        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3114        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
3115        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3116        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
3117
3118    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
3119        # We don't normalize qualified functions such as a.b.foo(), because they can be case-sensitive
3120        parent = expression.parent
3121        is_qualified = isinstance(parent, exp.Dot) and expression is parent.expression
3122        return self.func(
3123            self.sql(expression, "this"), *expression.expressions, normalize=not is_qualified
3124        )
3125
3126    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
3127        sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
3128        return f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
3129
3130    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
3131        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
3132        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
3133        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
3134        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
3135
3136    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
3137        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3138
3139    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
3140        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
3141        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
3142        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
3143
3144    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
3145        alias = expression.args["alias"]
3146
3147        parent = expression.parent
3148        pivot = parent and parent.parent
3149
3150        if isinstance(pivot, exp.Pivot) and pivot.unpivot:
3151            identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
3152            literal_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Literal)
3153
3154            if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
3155                alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
3156            elif not identifier_alias and literal_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
3157                alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
3158
3159        return self.alias_sql(expression)
3160
3161    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
3162        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
3163
3164    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
3165        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3166        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3167        return f"{this} AT {index}"
3168
3169    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
3170        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3171        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
3172        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
3173
3174    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
3175        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3176        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
3177        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"
3178
3179    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
3180        return self.binary(expression, "+")
3181
3182    def and_sql(
3183        self, expression: exp.And, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
3184    ) -> str:
3185        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND", stack)
3186
3187    def or_sql(
3188        self, expression: exp.Or, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
3189    ) -> str:
3190        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR", stack)
3191
3192    def xor_sql(
3193        self, expression: exp.Xor, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
3194    ) -> str:
3195        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR", stack)
3196
3197    def connector_sql(
3198        self,
3199        expression: exp.Connector,
3200        op: str,
3201        stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3202    ) -> str:
3203        if stack is not None:
3204            if expression.expressions:
3205                stack.append(self.expressions(expression, sep=f" {op} "))
3206            else:
3207                stack.append(expression.right)
3208                if expression.comments and self.comments:
3209                    for comment in expression.comments:
3210                        if comment:
3211                            op += f" /*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/"
3212                stack.extend((op, expression.left))
3213            return op
3214
3215        stack = [expression]
3216        sqls: t.List[str] = []
3217        ops = set()
3218
3219        while stack:
3220            node = stack.pop()
3221            if isinstance(node, exp.Connector):
3222                ops.add(getattr(self, f"{node.key}_sql")(node, stack))
3223            else:
3224                sql = self.sql(node)
3225                if sqls and sqls[-1] in ops:
3226                    sqls[-1] += f" {sql}"
3227                else:
3228                    sqls.append(sql)
3229
3230        sep = "\n" if self.pretty and self.too_wide(sqls) else " "
3231        return sep.join(sqls)
3232
3233    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
3234        return self.binary(expression, "&")
3235
3236    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
3237        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
3238
3239    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
3240        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3241
3242    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
3243        return self.binary(expression, "|")
3244
3245    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
3246        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
3247
3248    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
3249        return self.binary(expression, "^")
3250
3251    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
3252        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
3253        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
3254        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
3255        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
3256        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
3257        action = f" {action}" if action else ""
3258        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
3259        default = f" DEFAULT {default} ON CONVERSION ERROR" if default else ""
3260        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{default}{format_sql}{action})"
3261
3262    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
3263        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
3264        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
3265
3266    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
3267        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
3268            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3269        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
3270
3271    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
3272        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
3273
3274    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
3275        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3276        kind = expression.args["kind"]
3277        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
3278        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3279        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3280        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON{materialized} {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
3281
3282    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
3283        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3284        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
3285        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
3286        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
3287        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
3288        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
3289        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
3290        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
3291        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
3292
3293    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
3294        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
3295        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
3296        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
3297        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
3298
3299        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
3300            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
3301
3302        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
3303
3304    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
3305        return "BEGIN"
3306
3307    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
3308        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
3309        if chain is not None:
3310            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
3311
3312        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
3313
3314    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
3315        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
3316        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
3317        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
3318
3319    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
3320        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3321
3322        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
3323        if dtype:
3324            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
3325            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
3326            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3327            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
3328            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} {self.ALTER_SET_TYPE} {dtype}{collate}{using}"
3329
3330        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
3331        if default:
3332            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
3333
3334        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3335        if comment:
3336            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"
3337
3338        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3339        if visible:
3340            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET {visible}"
3341
3342        allow_null = expression.args.get("allow_null")
3343        drop = expression.args.get("drop")
3344
3345        if not drop and not allow_null:
3346            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
3347
3348        if allow_null is not None:
3349            keyword = "DROP" if drop else "SET"
3350            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} {keyword} NOT NULL"
3351
3352        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
3353
3354    def alterindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterIndex) -> str:
3355        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3356
3357        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3358        visible_sql = "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
3359
3360        return f"ALTER INDEX {this} {visible_sql}"
3361
3362    def alterdiststyle_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterDistStyle) -> str:
3363        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3364        if not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Var):
3365            this = f"KEY DISTKEY {this}"
3366        return f"ALTER DISTSTYLE {this}"
3367
3368    def altersortkey_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSortKey) -> str:
3369        compound = " COMPOUND" if expression.args.get("compound") else ""
3370        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3371        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3372        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3373        return f"ALTER{compound} SORTKEY {this or expressions}"
3374
3375    def alterrename_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterRename) -> str:
3376        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
3377            # Remove db from tables
3378            expression = expression.transform(
3379                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
3380            ).assert_is(exp.AlterRename)
3381        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3382        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
3383
3384    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
3385        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3386        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
3387        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
3388        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"
3389
3390    def alterset_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSet) -> str:
3391        exprs = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3392        return f"SET {exprs}"
3393
3394    def alter_sql(self, expression: exp.Alter) -> str:
3395        actions = expression.args["actions"]
3396
3397        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
3398            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
3399        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
3400            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
3401        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
3402            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3403        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Query):
3404            actions = "AS " + self.expressions(expression, key="actions")
3405        else:
3406            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3407
3408        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3409        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3410        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3411        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
3412        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
3413        options = f", {options}" if options else ""
3414        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3415        not_valid = " NOT VALID" if expression.args.get("not_valid") else ""
3416
3417        return f"ALTER {kind}{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{on_cluster} {actions}{not_valid}{options}"
3418
3419    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.Alter) -> str:
3420        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
3421            return self.expressions(
3422                expression,
3423                key="actions",
3424                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
3425                skip_first=True,
3426            )
3427        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
3428
3429    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
3430        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
3431        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3432        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
3433
3434    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
3435        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression)}"
3436
3437    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
3438        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3439
3440        if not self.MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT and len(expression.expressions) > 1:
3441            case = exp.case()
3442            for arg in expression.expressions:
3443                case = case.when(arg.is_(exp.null()), exp.null())
3444            this = self.sql(case.else_(f"({this})"))
3445
3446        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3447
3448        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
3449        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
3450        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
3451
3452    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
3453        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "IGNORE NULLS")
3454
3455    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
3456        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "RESPECT NULLS")
3457
3458    def havingmax_sql(self, expression: exp.HavingMax) -> str:
3459        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
3460        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3461        kind = "MAX" if expression.args.get("max") else "MIN"
3462        return f"{this_sql} HAVING {kind} {expression_sql}"
3463
3464    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
3465        return self.sql(
3466            exp.Cast(
3467                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
3468                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
3469            )
3470        )
3471
3472    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
3473        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
3474            return self.func(
3475                "CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in expression.flatten())
3476            )
3477        return self.binary(expression, "||")
3478
3479    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
3480        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
3481
3482        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
3483            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
3484
3485        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
3486            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES) and not r.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES):
3487                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3488
3489        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
3490            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
3491                return self.sql(
3492                    exp.cast(
3493                        l / r,
3494                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
3495                    )
3496                )
3497
3498        return self.binary(expression, "/")
3499
3500    def safedivide_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeDivide) -> str:
3501        n = exp._wrap(expression.this, exp.Binary)
3502        d = exp._wrap(expression.expression, exp.Binary)
3503        return self.sql(exp.If(this=d.neq(0), true=n / d, false=exp.Null()))
3504
3505    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
3506        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
3507
3508    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
3509        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
3510
3511    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
3512        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3513
3514    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
3515        return self.binary(expression, "=")
3516
3517    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3518        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
3519
3520    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
3521        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
3522
3523    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
3524        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
3525
3526    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
3527        return self.binary(expression, ">")
3528
3529    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
3530        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
3531
3532    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
3533        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
3534
3535    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
3536        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
3537
3538    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
3539        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
3540            return self.sql(
3541                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
3542            )
3543        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
3544
3545    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
3546        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
3547
3548    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
3549        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
3550
3551    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
3552        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
3553
3554    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
3555        return self.binary(expression, "<")
3556
3557    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
3558        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
3559
3560    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
3561        return self.binary(expression, "%")
3562
3563    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
3564        return self.binary(expression, "*")
3565
3566    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
3567        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
3568
3569    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3570        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
3571
3572    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3573        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
3574
3575    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
3576        return self.binary(expression, ":")
3577
3578    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
3579        return self.binary(expression, "-")
3580
3581    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
3582        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
3583
3584    def jsoncast_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONCast) -> str:
3585        return self.cast_sql(expression)
3586
3587    def try_sql(self, expression: exp.Try) -> str:
3588        if not self.TRY_SUPPORTED:
3589            self.unsupported("Unsupported TRY function")
3590            return self.sql(expression, "this")
3591
3592        return self.func("TRY", expression.this)
3593
3594    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
3595        this = expression.this
3596        expr = expression.expression
3597
3598        if self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is False:
3599            this, expr = expr, this
3600        elif self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is None and expr:
3601            if this.name in ("2", "10"):
3602                return self.func(f"LOG{this.name}", expr)
3603
3604            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported logarithm with base {self.sql(this)}")
3605
3606        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
3607
3608    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
3609        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3610        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
3611        this = self.sql(expression, "this") or self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3612        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3613        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
3614
3615    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3616        sqls: t.List[str] = []
3617        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
3618        binary_type = type(expression)
3619
3620        while stack:
3621            node = stack.pop()
3622
3623            if type(node) is binary_type:
3624                op_func = node.args.get("operator")
3625                if op_func:
3626                    op = f"OPERATOR({self.sql(op_func)})"
3627
3628                stack.append(node.right)
3629                stack.append(f" {self.maybe_comment(op, comments=node.comments)} ")
3630                stack.append(node.left)
3631            else:
3632                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
3633
3634        return "".join(sqls)
3635
3636    def ceil_floor(self, expression: exp.Ceil | exp.Floor) -> str:
3637        to_clause = self.sql(expression, "to")
3638        if to_clause:
3639            return f"{expression.sql_name()}({self.sql(expression, 'this')} TO {to_clause})"
3640
3641        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3642
3643    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
3644        args = []
3645
3646        for key in expression.arg_types:
3647            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
3648
3649            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
3650                for value in arg_value:
3651                    args.append(value)
3652            elif arg_value is not None:
3653                args.append(arg_value)
3654
3655        if self.dialect.PRESERVE_ORIGINAL_NAMES:
3656            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
3657        else:
3658            name = expression.sql_name()
3659
3660        return self.func(name, *args)
3661
3662    def func(
3663        self,
3664        name: str,
3665        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
3666        prefix: str = "(",
3667        suffix: str = ")",
3668        normalize: bool = True,
3669    ) -> str:
3670        name = self.normalize_func(name) if normalize else name
3671        return f"{name}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
3672
3673    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression], sep: str = ", ") -> str:
3674        arg_sqls = tuple(
3675            self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None and not isinstance(arg, bool)
3676        )
3677        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(arg_sqls):
3678            return self.indent(
3679                "\n" + f"{sep.strip()}\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True
3680            )
3681        return sep.join(arg_sqls)
3682
3683    def too_wide(self, args: t.Iterable) -> bool:
3684        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args) > self.max_text_width
3685
3686    def format_time(
3687        self,
3688        expression: exp.Expression,
3689        inverse_time_mapping: t.Optional[t.Dict[str, str]] = None,
3690        inverse_time_trie: t.Optional[t.Dict] = None,
3691    ) -> t.Optional[str]:
3692        return format_time(
3693            self.sql(expression, "format"),
3694            inverse_time_mapping or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
3695            inverse_time_trie or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
3696        )
3697
3698    def expressions(
3699        self,
3700        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
3701        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
3702        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3703        flat: bool = False,
3704        indent: bool = True,
3705        skip_first: bool = False,
3706        skip_last: bool = False,
3707        sep: str = ", ",
3708        prefix: str = "",
3709        dynamic: bool = False,
3710        new_line: bool = False,
3711    ) -> str:
3712        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
3713
3714        if not expressions:
3715            return ""
3716
3717        if flat:
3718            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
3719
3720        num_sqls = len(expressions)
3721        result_sqls = []
3722
3723        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
3724            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
3725            if not sql:
3726                continue
3727
3728            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
3729
3730            if self.pretty:
3731                if self.leading_comma:
3732                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else ''}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
3733                else:
3734                    result_sqls.append(
3735                        f"{prefix}{sql}{(sep.rstrip() if comments else sep) if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
3736                    )
3737            else:
3738                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
3739
3740        if self.pretty and (not dynamic or self.too_wide(result_sqls)):
3741            if new_line:
3742                result_sqls.insert(0, "")
3743                result_sqls.append("")
3744            result_sql = "\n".join(s.rstrip() for s in result_sqls)
3745        else:
3746            result_sql = "".join(result_sqls)
3747
3748        return (
3749            self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first, skip_last=skip_last)
3750            if indent
3751            else result_sql
3752        )
3753
3754    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3755        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
3756        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
3757        if flat:
3758            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
3759        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
3760
3761    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
3762        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
3763        if not property_name:
3764            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
3765        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3766
3767    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
3768        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
3769
3770    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
3771        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
3772
3773    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3774        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3775        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
3776        expressions = (
3777            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
3778        )
3779        return f"{this}{expressions}" if expressions.strip() != "" else this
3780
3781    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
3782        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3783        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3784        return f"{this}({expressions})"
3785
3786    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
3787        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
3788
3789    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
3790        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
3791        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
3792        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3793        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
3794
3795        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
3796        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
3797            this = self.sql(then_expression, "this")
3798            this = f"INSERT {this}" if this else "INSERT"
3799            then = self.sql(then_expression, "expression")
3800            then = f"{this} VALUES {then}" if then else this
3801        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
3802            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
3803                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
3804            else:
3805                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
3806        else:
3807            then = self.sql(then_expression)
3808        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
3809
3810    def whens_sql(self, expression: exp.Whens) -> str:
3811        return self.expressions(expression, sep=" ", indent=False)
3812
3813    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
3814        table = expression.this
3815        table_alias = ""
3816
3817        hints = table.args.get("hints")
3818        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
3819            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
3820            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
3821
3822        this = self.sql(table)
3823        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
3824        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
3825        whens = self.sql(expression, "whens")
3826
3827        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
3828        if returning:
3829            whens = f"{whens}{returning}"
3830
3831        sep = self.sep()
3832
3833        return self.prepend_ctes(
3834            expression,
3835            f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias}{sep}{using}{sep}{on}{sep}{whens}",
3836        )
3837
3838    @unsupported_args("format")
3839    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
3840        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT))
3841
3842    def tonumber_sql(self, expression: exp.ToNumber) -> str:
3843        if not self.SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER:
3844            self.unsupported("Unsupported TO_NUMBER function")
3845            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3846
3847        fmt = expression.args.get("format")
3848        if not fmt:
3849            self.unsupported("Conversion format is required for TO_NUMBER")
3850            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3851
3852        return self.func("TO_NUMBER", expression.this, fmt)
3853
3854    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
3855        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3856        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3857        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
3858        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
3859        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
3860
3861    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
3862        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3863        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
3864        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
3865        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
3866
3867    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3868        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
3869
3870    def duplicatekeyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DuplicateKeyProperty) -> str:
3871        return f"DUPLICATE KEY ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
3872
3873    # https://docs.starrocks.io/docs/sql-reference/sql-statements/table_bucket_part_index/CREATE_TABLE/
3874    def uniquekeyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueKeyProperty) -> str:
3875        return f"UNIQUE KEY ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
3876
3877    # https://docs.starrocks.io/docs/sql-reference/sql-statements/data-definition/CREATE_TABLE/#distribution_desc
3878    def distributedbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DistributedByProperty) -> str:
3879        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3880        expressions = f" {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else ""
3881        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3882        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3883        buckets = f" BUCKETS {buckets}" if buckets else ""
3884        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
3885        return f"DISTRIBUTED BY {kind}{expressions}{buckets}{order}"
3886
3887    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
3888        return ""
3889
3890    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3891        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
3892        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
3893        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
3894        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3895        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
3896
3897    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
3898        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3899        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
3900
3901        if having:
3902            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
3903
3904        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
3905
3906    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
3907        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
3908        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
3909        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
3910        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
3911        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
3912        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
3913        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3914        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
3915        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
3916        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
3917        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
3918        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
3919        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
3920
3921    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3922        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
3923        if key_block_size:
3924            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
3925
3926        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3927        if using:
3928            return f"USING {using}"
3929
3930        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
3931        if parser:
3932            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
3933
3934        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3935        if comment:
3936            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
3937
3938        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3939        if visible is not None:
3940            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
3941
3942        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
3943        if engine_attr:
3944            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
3945
3946        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
3947        if secondary_engine_attr:
3948            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
3949
3950        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
3951        return ""
3952
3953    def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3954        enforced = " ENFORCED" if expression.args.get("enforced") else ""
3955        return f"CHECK ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}){enforced}"
3956
3957    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3958        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3959        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
3960        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3961        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3962        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
3963        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
3964        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3965        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3966        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
3967        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3968        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{expressions}{options}"
3969
3970    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
3971        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
3972            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3973
3974        case = exp.Case().when(
3975            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
3976            expression.args["true"],
3977            copy=False,
3978        )
3979        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
3980        if else_cond:
3981            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
3982
3983        return self.sql(case)
3984
3985    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
3986        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3987        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3988        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
3989        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3990        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
3991        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
3992
3993    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3994        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
3995
3996    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
3997        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3998
3999    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
4000        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
4001        model = f"MODEL {model}"
4002        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4003        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
4004        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
4005        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
4006
4007    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
4008        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4009        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4010        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
4011
4012    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
4013        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4014        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
4015        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
4016
4017    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
4018        arg = expression.this
4019        if not arg.type:
4020            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
4021
4022            arg = annotate_types(arg, dialect=self.dialect)
4023
4024        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
4025            return self.sql(arg)
4026
4027        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
4028        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.array(arg, copy=False)))
4029
4030    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
4031        this = expression.this
4032        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
4033
4034        if time_format:
4035            return self.sql(
4036                exp.cast(
4037                    exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]),
4038                    exp.DataType.Type.TIME,
4039                )
4040            )
4041
4042        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
4043            return self.sql(this)
4044
4045        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIME))
4046
4047    def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
4048        this = expression.this
4049        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP):
4050            return self.sql(this)
4051
4052        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP, dialect=self.dialect))
4053
4054    def tsordstodatetime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDatetime) -> str:
4055        this = expression.this
4056        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDatetime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME):
4057            return self.sql(this)
4058
4059        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME, dialect=self.dialect))
4060
4061    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
4062        this = expression.this
4063        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
4064
4065        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
4066            return self.sql(
4067                exp.cast(
4068                    exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]),
4069                    exp.DataType.Type.DATE,
4070                )
4071            )
4072
4073        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
4074            return self.sql(this)
4075
4076        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATE))
4077
4078    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
4079        return self.sql(
4080            exp.func(
4081                "DATEDIFF",
4082                expression.this,
4083                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), exp.DataType.Type.DATE),
4084                "day",
4085            )
4086        )
4087
4088    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
4089        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
4090            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4091
4092        unit = expression.text("unit")
4093        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
4094            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
4095
4096        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)
4097
4098    def dateadd_sql(self, expression: exp.DateAdd) -> str:
4099        from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import unit_to_str
4100
4101        return self.func(
4102            "DATE_ADD", expression.this, expression.expression, unit_to_str(expression)
4103        )
4104
4105    def arrayany_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAny) -> str:
4106        if self.CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY:
4107            filtered = exp.ArrayFilter(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression)
4108            filtered_not_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=filtered).neq(0)
4109            original_is_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=expression.this).eq(0)
4110            return self.sql(exp.paren(original_is_empty.or_(filtered_not_empty)))
4111
4112        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
4113
4114        # SQLGlot's executor supports ARRAY_ANY, so we don't wanna warn for the SQLGlot dialect
4115        if self.dialect.__class__ != Dialect:
4116            self.unsupported("ARRAY_ANY is unsupported")
4117
4118        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4119
4120    def struct_sql(self, expression: exp.Struct) -> str:
4121        expression.set(
4122            "expressions",
4123            [
4124                exp.alias_(e.expression, e.name if e.this.is_string else e.this)
4125                if isinstance(e, exp.PropertyEQ)
4126                else e
4127                for e in expression.expressions
4128            ],
4129        )
4130
4131        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4132
4133    def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionRange) -> str:
4134        low = self.sql(expression, "this")
4135        high = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4136
4137        return f"{low} TO {high}"
4138
4139    def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: exp.TruncateTable) -> str:
4140        target = "DATABASE" if expression.args.get("is_database") else "TABLE"
4141        tables = f" {self.expressions(expression)}"
4142
4143        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
4144
4145        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
4146        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
4147
4148        identity = self.sql(expression, "identity")
4149        identity = f" {identity} IDENTITY" if identity else ""
4150
4151        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
4152        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
4153
4154        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
4155        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
4156
4157        return f"TRUNCATE {target}{exists}{tables}{on_cluster}{identity}{option}{partition}"
4158
4159    # This transpiles T-SQL's CONVERT function
4160    # https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/sql/t-sql/functions/cast-and-convert-transact-sql?view=sql-server-ver16
4161    def convert_sql(self, expression: exp.Convert) -> str:
4162        to = expression.this
4163        value = expression.expression
4164        style = expression.args.get("style")
4165        safe = expression.args.get("safe")
4166        strict = expression.args.get("strict")
4167
4168        if not to or not value:
4169            return ""
4170
4171        # Retrieve length of datatype and override to default if not specified
4172        if not seq_get(to.expressions, 0) and to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
4173            to = exp.DataType.build(to.this, expressions=[exp.Literal.number(30)], nested=False)
4174
4175        transformed: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None
4176        cast = exp.Cast if strict else exp.TryCast
4177
4178        # Check whether a conversion with format (T-SQL calls this 'style') is applicable
4179        if isinstance(style, exp.Literal) and style.is_int:
4180            from sqlglot.dialects.tsql import TSQL
4181
4182            style_value = style.name
4183            converted_style = TSQL.CONVERT_FORMAT_MAPPING.get(style_value)
4184            if not converted_style:
4185                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported T-SQL 'style' value: {style_value}")
4186
4187            fmt = exp.Literal.string(converted_style)
4188
4189            if to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATE:
4190                transformed = exp.StrToDate(this=value, format=fmt)
4191            elif to.this in (exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME, exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME2):
4192                transformed = exp.StrToTime(this=value, format=fmt)
4193            elif to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
4194                transformed = cast(this=exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt), to=to, safe=safe)
4195            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.TEXT:
4196                transformed = exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt)
4197
4198        if not transformed:
4199            transformed = cast(this=value, to=to, safe=safe)
4200
4201        return self.sql(transformed)
4202
4203    def _jsonpathkey_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathKey) -> str:
4204        this = expression.this
4205        if isinstance(this, exp.JSONPathWildcard):
4206            this = self.json_path_part(this)
4207            return f".{this}" if this else ""
4208
4209        if exp.SAFE_IDENTIFIER_RE.match(this):
4210            return f".{this}"
4211
4212        this = self.json_path_part(this)
4213        return (
4214            f"[{this}]"
4215            if self._quote_json_path_key_using_brackets and self.JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED
4216            else f".{this}"
4217        )
4218
4219    def _jsonpathsubscript_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathSubscript) -> str:
4220        this = self.json_path_part(expression.this)
4221        return f"[{this}]" if this else ""
4222
4223    def _simplify_unless_literal(self, expression: E) -> E:
4224        if not isinstance(expression, exp.Literal):
4225            from sqlglot.optimizer.simplify import simplify
4226
4227            expression = simplify(expression, dialect=self.dialect)
4228
4229        return expression
4230
4231    def _embed_ignore_nulls(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls | exp.RespectNulls, text: str) -> str:
4232        if self.IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC and not expression.meta.get("inline"):
4233            # The first modifier here will be the one closest to the AggFunc's arg
4234            mods = sorted(
4235                expression.find_all(exp.HavingMax, exp.Order, exp.Limit),
4236                key=lambda x: 0
4237                if isinstance(x, exp.HavingMax)
4238                else (1 if isinstance(x, exp.Order) else 2),
4239            )
4240
4241            if mods:
4242                mod = mods[0]
4243                this = expression.__class__(this=mod.this.copy())
4244                this.meta["inline"] = True
4245                mod.this.replace(this)
4246                return self.sql(expression.this)
4247
4248            agg_func = expression.find(exp.AggFunc)
4249
4250            if agg_func:
4251                return self.sql(agg_func)[:-1] + f" {text})"
4252
4253        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {text}"
4254
4255    def _replace_line_breaks(self, string: str) -> str:
4256        """We don't want to extra indent line breaks so we temporarily replace them with sentinels."""
4257        if self.pretty:
4258            return string.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
4259        return string
4260
4261    def copyparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.CopyParameter) -> str:
4262        option = self.sql(expression, "this")
4263
4264        if expression.expressions:
4265            upper = option.upper()
4266
4267            # Snowflake FILE_FORMAT options are separated by whitespace
4268            sep = " " if upper == "FILE_FORMAT" else ", "
4269
4270            # Databricks copy/format options do not set their list of values with EQ
4271            op = " " if upper in ("COPY_OPTIONS", "FORMAT_OPTIONS") else " = "
4272            values = self.expressions(expression, flat=True, sep=sep)
4273            return f"{option}{op}({values})"
4274
4275        value = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4276
4277        if not value:
4278            return option
4279
4280        op = " = " if self.COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED else " "
4281
4282        return f"{option}{op}{value}"
4283
4284    def credentials_sql(self, expression: exp.Credentials) -> str:
4285        cred_expr = expression.args.get("credentials")
4286        if isinstance(cred_expr, exp.Literal):
4287            # Redshift case: CREDENTIALS <string>
4288            credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
4289            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS {credentials}" if credentials else ""
4290        else:
4291            # Snowflake case: CREDENTIALS = (...)
4292            credentials = self.expressions(expression, key="credentials", flat=True, sep=" ")
4293            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS = ({credentials})" if cred_expr is not None else ""
4294
4295        storage = self.sql(expression, "storage")
4296        storage = f"STORAGE_INTEGRATION = {storage}" if storage else ""
4297
4298        encryption = self.expressions(expression, key="encryption", flat=True, sep=" ")
4299        encryption = f" ENCRYPTION = ({encryption})" if encryption else ""
4300
4301        iam_role = self.sql(expression, "iam_role")
4302        iam_role = f"IAM_ROLE {iam_role}" if iam_role else ""
4303
4304        region = self.sql(expression, "region")
4305        region = f" REGION {region}" if region else ""
4306
4307        return f"{credentials}{storage}{encryption}{iam_role}{region}"
4308
4309    def copy_sql(self, expression: exp.Copy) -> str:
4310        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4311        this = f" INTO {this}" if self.COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD else f" {this}"
4312
4313        credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
4314        credentials = self.seg(credentials) if credentials else ""
4315        kind = self.seg("FROM" if expression.args.get("kind") else "TO")
4316        files = self.expressions(expression, key="files", flat=True)
4317
4318        sep = ", " if self.dialect.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_CSV else " "
4319        params = self.expressions(
4320            expression,
4321            key="params",
4322            sep=sep,
4323            new_line=True,
4324            skip_last=True,
4325            skip_first=True,
4326            indent=self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED,
4327        )
4328
4329        if params:
4330            if self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED:
4331                params = f" WITH ({params})"
4332            elif not self.pretty:
4333                params = f" {params}"
4334
4335        return f"COPY{this}{kind} {files}{credentials}{params}"
4336
4337    def semicolon_sql(self, expression: exp.Semicolon) -> str:
4338        return ""
4339
4340    def datadeletionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataDeletionProperty) -> str:
4341        on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
4342        filter_col: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "filter_column")
4343        filter_col = f"FILTER_COLUMN={filter_col}" if filter_col else None
4344        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
4345        retention_period = f"RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
4346
4347        if filter_col or retention_period:
4348            on_sql = self.func("ON", filter_col, retention_period)
4349
4350        return f"DATA_DELETION={on_sql}"
4351
4352    def maskingpolicycolumnconstraint_sql(
4353        self, expression: exp.MaskingPolicyColumnConstraint
4354    ) -> str:
4355        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4356        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
4357        expressions = f" USING ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
4358        return f"MASKING POLICY {this}{expressions}"
4359
4360    def gapfill_sql(self, expression: exp.GapFill) -> str:
4361        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4362        this = f"TABLE {this}"
4363        return self.func("GAP_FILL", this, *[v for k, v in expression.args.items() if k != "this"])
4364
4365    def scope_resolution(self, rhs: str, scope_name: str) -> str:
4366        return self.func("SCOPE_RESOLUTION", scope_name or None, rhs)
4367
4368    def scoperesolution_sql(self, expression: exp.ScopeResolution) -> str:
4369        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4370        expr = expression.expression
4371
4372        if isinstance(expr, exp.Func):
4373            # T-SQL's CLR functions are case sensitive
4374            expr = f"{self.sql(expr, 'this')}({self.format_args(*expr.expressions)})"
4375        else:
4376            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4377
4378        return self.scope_resolution(expr, this)
4379
4380    def parsejson_sql(self, expression: exp.ParseJSON) -> str:
4381        if self.PARSE_JSON_NAME is None:
4382            return self.sql(expression.this)
4383
4384        return self.func(self.PARSE_JSON_NAME, expression.this, expression.expression)
4385
4386    def rand_sql(self, expression: exp.Rand) -> str:
4387        lower = self.sql(expression, "lower")
4388        upper = self.sql(expression, "upper")
4389
4390        if lower and upper:
4391            return f"({upper} - {lower}) * {self.func('RAND', expression.this)} + {lower}"
4392        return self.func("RAND", expression.this)
4393
4394    def changes_sql(self, expression: exp.Changes) -> str:
4395        information = self.sql(expression, "information")
4396        information = f"INFORMATION => {information}"
4397        at_before = self.sql(expression, "at_before")
4398        at_before = f"{self.seg('')}{at_before}" if at_before else ""
4399        end = self.sql(expression, "end")
4400        end = f"{self.seg('')}{end}" if end else ""
4401
4402        return f"CHANGES ({information}){at_before}{end}"
4403
4404    def pad_sql(self, expression: exp.Pad) -> str:
4405        prefix = "L" if expression.args.get("is_left") else "R"
4406
4407        fill_pattern = self.sql(expression, "fill_pattern") or None
4408        if not fill_pattern and self.PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED:
4409            fill_pattern = "' '"
4410
4411        return self.func(f"{prefix}PAD", expression.this, expression.expression, fill_pattern)
4412
4413    def summarize_sql(self, expression: exp.Summarize) -> str:
4414        table = " TABLE" if expression.args.get("table") else ""
4415        return f"SUMMARIZE{table} {self.sql(expression.this)}"
4416
4417    def explodinggenerateseries_sql(self, expression: exp.ExplodingGenerateSeries) -> str:
4418        generate_series = exp.GenerateSeries(**expression.args)
4419
4420        parent = expression.parent
4421        if isinstance(parent, (exp.Alias, exp.TableAlias)):
4422            parent = parent.parent
4423
4424        if self.SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS and not isinstance(parent, (exp.Table, exp.Unnest)):
4425            return self.sql(exp.Unnest(expressions=[generate_series]))
4426
4427        if isinstance(parent, exp.Select):
4428            self.unsupported("GenerateSeries projection unnesting is not supported.")
4429
4430        return self.sql(generate_series)
4431
4432    def arrayconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayConcat, name: str = "ARRAY_CONCAT") -> str:
4433        exprs = expression.expressions
4434        if not self.ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN:
4435            rhs = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.ArrayConcat(this=x, expressions=[y]), exprs)
4436        else:
4437            rhs = self.expressions(expression)
4438
4439        return self.func(name, expression.this, rhs or None)
4440
4441    def converttimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.ConvertTimezone) -> str:
4442        if self.SUPPORTS_CONVERT_TIMEZONE:
4443            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4444
4445        source_tz = expression.args.get("source_tz")
4446        target_tz = expression.args.get("target_tz")
4447        timestamp = expression.args.get("timestamp")
4448
4449        if source_tz and timestamp:
4450            timestamp = exp.AtTimeZone(
4451                this=exp.cast(timestamp, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPNTZ), zone=source_tz
4452            )
4453
4454        expr = exp.AtTimeZone(this=timestamp, zone=target_tz)
4455
4456        return self.sql(expr)
4457
4458    def json_sql(self, expression: exp.JSON) -> str:
4459        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4460        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
4461
4462        _with = expression.args.get("with")
4463
4464        if _with is None:
4465            with_sql = ""
4466        elif not _with:
4467            with_sql = " WITHOUT"
4468        else:
4469            with_sql = " WITH"
4470
4471        unique_sql = " UNIQUE KEYS" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
4472
4473        return f"JSON{this}{with_sql}{unique_sql}"
4474
4475    def jsonvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONValue) -> str:
4476        def _generate_on_options(arg: t.Any) -> str:
4477            return arg if isinstance(arg, str) else f"DEFAULT {self.sql(arg)}"
4478
4479        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
4480        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
4481        returning = f" RETURNING {returning}" if returning else ""
4482
4483        on_condition = self.sql(expression, "on_condition")
4484        on_condition = f" {on_condition}" if on_condition else ""
4485
4486        return self.func("JSON_VALUE", expression.this, f"{path}{returning}{on_condition}")
4487
4488    def conditionalinsert_sql(self, expression: exp.ConditionalInsert) -> str:
4489        else_ = "ELSE " if expression.args.get("else_") else ""
4490        condition = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4491        condition = f"WHEN {condition} THEN " if condition else else_
4492        insert = self.sql(expression, "this")[len("INSERT") :].strip()
4493        return f"{condition}{insert}"
4494
4495    def multitableinserts_sql(self, expression: exp.MultitableInserts) -> str:
4496        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4497        expressions = self.seg(self.expressions(expression, sep=" "))
4498        res = f"INSERT {kind}{expressions}{self.seg(self.sql(expression, 'source'))}"
4499        return res
4500
4501    def oncondition_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCondition) -> str:
4502        # Static options like "NULL ON ERROR" are stored as strings, in contrast to "DEFAULT <expr> ON ERROR"
4503        empty = expression.args.get("empty")
4504        empty = (
4505            f"DEFAULT {empty} ON EMPTY"
4506            if isinstance(empty, exp.Expression)
4507            else self.sql(expression, "empty")
4508        )
4509
4510        error = expression.args.get("error")
4511        error = (
4512            f"DEFAULT {error} ON ERROR"
4513            if isinstance(error, exp.Expression)
4514            else self.sql(expression, "error")
4515        )
4516
4517        if error and empty:
4518            error = (
4519                f"{empty} {error}"
4520                if self.dialect.ON_CONDITION_EMPTY_BEFORE_ERROR
4521                else f"{error} {empty}"
4522            )
4523            empty = ""
4524
4525        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
4526
4527        return f"{empty}{error}{null}"
4528
4529    def jsonextractquote_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONExtractQuote) -> str:
4530        scalar = " ON SCALAR STRING" if expression.args.get("scalar") else ""
4531        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'option')} QUOTES{scalar}"
4532
4533    def jsonexists_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONExists) -> str:
4534        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4535        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
4536
4537        passing = self.expressions(expression, "passing")
4538        passing = f" PASSING {passing}" if passing else ""
4539
4540        on_condition = self.sql(expression, "on_condition")
4541        on_condition = f" {on_condition}" if on_condition else ""
4542
4543        path = f"{path}{passing}{on_condition}"
4544
4545        return self.func("JSON_EXISTS", this, path)
4546
4547    def arrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAgg) -> str:
4548        array_agg = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4549
4550        # Add a NULL FILTER on the column to mimic the results going from a dialect that excludes nulls
4551        # on ARRAY_AGG (e.g Spark) to one that doesn't (e.g. DuckDB)
4552        if self.dialect.ARRAY_AGG_INCLUDES_NULLS and expression.args.get("nulls_excluded"):
4553            parent = expression.parent
4554            if isinstance(parent, exp.Filter):
4555                parent_cond = parent.expression.this
4556                parent_cond.replace(parent_cond.and_(expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_()))
4557            else:
4558                this = expression.this
4559                # Do not add the filter if the input is not a column (e.g. literal, struct etc)
4560                if this.find(exp.Column):
4561                    # DISTINCT is already present in the agg function, do not propagate it to FILTER as well
4562                    this_sql = (
4563                        self.expressions(this)
4564                        if isinstance(this, exp.Distinct)
4565                        else self.sql(expression, "this")
4566                    )
4567
4568                    array_agg = f"{array_agg} FILTER(WHERE {this_sql} IS NOT NULL)"
4569
4570        return array_agg
4571
4572    def apply_sql(self, expression: exp.Apply) -> str:
4573        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4574        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4575
4576        return f"{this} APPLY({expr})"
4577
4578    def grant_sql(self, expression: exp.Grant) -> str:
4579        privileges_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="privileges", flat=True)
4580
4581        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4582        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
4583
4584        securable = self.sql(expression, "securable")
4585        securable = f" {securable}" if securable else ""
4586
4587        principals = self.expressions(expression, key="principals", flat=True)
4588
4589        grant_option = " WITH GRANT OPTION" if expression.args.get("grant_option") else ""
4590
4591        return f"GRANT {privileges_sql} ON{kind}{securable} TO {principals}{grant_option}"
4592
4593    def grantprivilege_sql(self, expression: exp.GrantPrivilege):
4594        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4595        columns = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
4596        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
4597
4598        return f"{this}{columns}"
4599
4600    def grantprincipal_sql(self, expression: exp.GrantPrincipal):
4601        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4602
4603        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4604        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
4605
4606        return f"{kind}{this}"
4607
4608    def columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Columns):
4609        func = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4610        if expression.args.get("unpack"):
4611            func = f"*{func}"
4612
4613        return func
4614
4615    def overlay_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlay):
4616        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4617        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4618        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
4619        for_sql = self.sql(expression, "for")
4620        for_sql = f" FOR {for_sql}" if for_sql else ""
4621
4622        return f"OVERLAY({this} PLACING {expr} FROM {from_sql}{for_sql})"
4623
4624    @unsupported_args("format")
4625    def todouble_sql(self, expression: exp.ToDouble) -> str:
4626        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
4627
4628    def string_sql(self, expression: exp.String) -> str:
4629        this = expression.this
4630        zone = expression.args.get("zone")
4631
4632        if zone:
4633            # This is a BigQuery specific argument for STRING(<timestamp_expr>, <time_zone>)
4634            # BigQuery stores timestamps internally as UTC, so ConvertTimezone is used with UTC
4635            # set for source_tz to transpile the time conversion before the STRING cast
4636            this = exp.ConvertTimezone(
4637                source_tz=exp.Literal.string("UTC"), target_tz=zone, timestamp=this
4638            )
4639
4640        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.VARCHAR))
4641
4642    def median_sql(self, expression: exp.Median):
4643        if not self.SUPPORTS_MEDIAN:
4644            return self.sql(
4645                exp.PercentileCont(this=expression.this, expression=exp.Literal.number(0.5))
4646            )
4647
4648        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4649
4650    def overflowtruncatebehavior_sql(self, expression: exp.OverflowTruncateBehavior) -> str:
4651        filler = self.sql(expression, "this")
4652        filler = f" {filler}" if filler else ""
4653        with_count = "WITH COUNT" if expression.args.get("with_count") else "WITHOUT COUNT"
4654        return f"TRUNCATE{filler} {with_count}"
4655
4656    def unixseconds_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixSeconds) -> str:
4657        if self.SUPPORTS_UNIX_SECONDS:
4658            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4659
4660        start_ts = exp.cast(
4661            exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01 00:00:00+00"), to=exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ
4662        )
4663
4664        return self.sql(
4665            exp.TimestampDiff(this=expression.this, expression=start_ts, unit=exp.var("SECONDS"))
4666        )
4667
4668    def arraysize_sql(self, expression: exp.ArraySize) -> str:
4669        dim = expression.expression
4670
4671        # For dialects that don't support the dimension arg, we can safely transpile it's default value (1st dimension)
4672        if dim and self.ARRAY_SIZE_DIM_REQUIRED is None:
4673            if not (dim.is_int and dim.name == "1"):
4674                self.unsupported("Cannot transpile dimension argument for ARRAY_LENGTH")
4675            dim = None
4676
4677        # If dimension is required but not specified, default initialize it
4678        if self.ARRAY_SIZE_DIM_REQUIRED and not dim:
4679            dim = exp.Literal.number(1)
4680
4681        return self.func(self.ARRAY_SIZE_NAME, expression.this, dim)
4682
4683    def attach_sql(self, expression: exp.Attach) -> str:
4684        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4685        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
4686        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
4687        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
4688
4689        return f"ATTACH{exists_sql} {this}{expressions}"
4690
4691    def detach_sql(self, expression: exp.Detach) -> str:
4692        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4693        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
4694
4695        return f"DETACH{exists_sql} {this}"
4696
4697    def attachoption_sql(self, expression: exp.AttachOption) -> str:
4698        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4699        value = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4700        value = f" {value}" if value else ""
4701        return f"{this}{value}"
4702
4703    def featuresattime_sql(self, expression: exp.FeaturesAtTime) -> str:
4704        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
4705        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Table):
4706            this_sql = f"TABLE {this_sql}"
4707
4708        return self.func(
4709            "FEATURES_AT_TIME",
4710            this_sql,
4711            expression.args.get("time"),
4712            expression.args.get("num_rows"),
4713            expression.args.get("ignore_feature_nulls"),
4714        )
4715
4716    def watermarkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.WatermarkColumnConstraint) -> str:
4717        return (
4718            f"WATERMARK FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
4719        )
4720
4721    def encodeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.EncodeProperty) -> str:
4722        encode = "KEY ENCODE" if expression.args.get("key") else "ENCODE"
4723        encode = f"{encode} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
4724
4725        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
4726        if properties:
4727            encode = f"{encode} {self.properties(properties)}"
4728
4729        return encode
4730
4731    def includeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IncludeProperty) -> str:
4732        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4733        include = f"INCLUDE {this}"
4734
4735        column_def = self.sql(expression, "column_def")
4736        if column_def:
4737            include = f"{include} {column_def}"
4738
4739        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
4740        if alias:
4741            include = f"{include} AS {alias}"
4742
4743        return include
4744
4745    def xmlelement_sql(self, expression: exp.XMLElement) -> str:
4746        name = f"NAME {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
4747        return self.func("XMLELEMENT", name, *expression.expressions)
4748
4749    def partitionbyrangeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionByRangeProperty) -> str:
4750        partitions = self.expressions(expression, "partition_expressions")
4751        create = self.expressions(expression, "create_expressions")
4752        return f"PARTITION BY RANGE {self.wrap(partitions)} {self.wrap(create)}"
4753
4754    def partitionbyrangepropertydynamic_sql(
4755        self, expression: exp.PartitionByRangePropertyDynamic
4756    ) -> str:
4757        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
4758        end = self.sql(expression, "end")
4759
4760        every = expression.args["every"]
4761        if isinstance(every, exp.Interval) and every.this.is_string:
4762            every.this.replace(exp.Literal.number(every.name))
4763
4764        return f"START {self.wrap(start)} END {self.wrap(end)} EVERY {self.wrap(self.sql(every))}"
4765
4766    def unpivotcolumns_sql(self, expression: exp.UnpivotColumns) -> str:
4767        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
4768        values = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
4769
4770        return f"NAME {name} VALUE {values}"
4771
4772    def analyzesample_sql(self, expression: exp.AnalyzeSample) -> str:
4773        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4774        sample = self.sql(expression, "sample")
4775        return f"SAMPLE {sample} {kind}"
4776
4777    def analyzestatistics_sql(self, expression: exp.AnalyzeStatistics) -> str:
4778        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4779        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
4780        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
4781        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4782        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
4783        columns = self.expressions(expression)
4784        columns = f" {columns}" if columns else ""
4785        return f"{kind}{option} STATISTICS{this}{columns}"
4786
4787    def analyzehistogram_sql(self, expression: exp.AnalyzeHistogram) -> str:
4788        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4789        columns = self.expressions(expression)
4790        inner_expression = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4791        inner_expression = f" {inner_expression}" if inner_expression else ""
4792        update_options = self.sql(expression, "update_options")
4793        update_options = f" {update_options} UPDATE" if update_options else ""
4794        return f"{this} HISTOGRAM ON {columns}{inner_expression}{update_options}"
4795
4796    def analyzedelete_sql(self, expression: exp.AnalyzeDelete) -> str:
4797        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4798        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
4799        return f"DELETE{kind} STATISTICS"
4800
4801    def analyzelistchainedrows_sql(self, expression: exp.AnalyzeListChainedRows) -> str:
4802        inner_expression = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4803        return f"LIST CHAINED ROWS{inner_expression}"
4804
4805    def analyzevalidate_sql(self, expression: exp.AnalyzeValidate) -> str:
4806        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4807        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4808        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
4809        inner_expression = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4810        return f"VALIDATE {kind}{this}{inner_expression}"
4811
4812    def analyze_sql(self, expression: exp.Analyze) -> str:
4813        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
4814        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
4815        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4816        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
4817        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4818        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
4819        mode = self.sql(expression, "mode")
4820        mode = f" {mode}" if mode else ""
4821        properties = self.sql(expression, "properties")
4822        properties = f" {properties}" if properties else ""
4823        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
4824        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
4825        inner_expression = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4826        inner_expression = f" {inner_expression}" if inner_expression else ""
4827        return f"ANALYZE{options}{kind}{this}{partition}{mode}{inner_expression}{properties}"
4828
4829    def xmltable_sql(self, expression: exp.XMLTable) -> str:
4830        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4831        namespaces = self.expressions(expression, key="namespaces")
4832        namespaces = f"XMLNAMESPACES({namespaces}), " if namespaces else ""
4833        passing = self.expressions(expression, key="passing")
4834        passing = f"{self.sep()}PASSING{self.seg(passing)}" if passing else ""
4835        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns")
4836        columns = f"{self.sep()}COLUMNS{self.seg(columns)}" if columns else ""
4837        by_ref = f"{self.sep()}RETURNING SEQUENCE BY REF" if expression.args.get("by_ref") else ""
4838        return f"XMLTABLE({self.sep('')}{self.indent(namespaces + this + passing + by_ref + columns)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
4839
4840    def xmlnamespace_sql(self, expression: exp.XMLNamespace) -> str:
4841        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4842        return this if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Alias) else f"DEFAULT {this}"
4843
4844    def export_sql(self, expression: exp.Export) -> str:
4845        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4846        connection = self.sql(expression, "connection")
4847        connection = f"WITH CONNECTION {connection} " if connection else ""
4848        options = self.sql(expression, "options")
4849        return f"EXPORT DATA {connection}{options} AS {this}"
4850
4851    def declare_sql(self, expression: exp.Declare) -> str:
4852        return f"DECLARE {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
4853
4854    def declareitem_sql(self, expression: exp.DeclareItem) -> str:
4855        variable = self.sql(expression, "this")
4856        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
4857        default = f" = {default}" if default else ""
4858
4859        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4860        if isinstance(expression.args.get("kind"), exp.Schema):
4861            kind = f"TABLE {kind}"
4862
4863        return f"{variable} AS {kind}{default}"
4864
4865    def recursivewithsearch_sql(self, expression: exp.RecursiveWithSearch) -> str:
4866        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4867        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4868        set = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4869        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
4870        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
4871
4872        kind_sql = kind if kind == "CYCLE" else f"SEARCH {kind} FIRST BY"
4873
4874        return f"{kind_sql} {this} SET {set}{using}"
4875
4876    def parameterizedagg_sql(self, expression: exp.ParameterizedAgg) -> str:
4877        params = self.expressions(expression, key="params", flat=True)
4878        return self.func(expression.name, *expression.expressions) + f"({params})"
4879
4880    def anonymousaggfunc_sql(self, expression: exp.AnonymousAggFunc) -> str:
4881        return self.func(expression.name, *expression.expressions)
4882
4883    def combinedaggfunc_sql(self, expression: exp.CombinedAggFunc) -> str:
4884        return self.anonymousaggfunc_sql(expression)
4885
4886    def combinedparameterizedagg_sql(self, expression: exp.CombinedParameterizedAgg) -> str:
4887        return self.parameterizedagg_sql(expression)
4888
4889    def show_sql(self, expression: exp.Show) -> str:
4890        self.unsupported("Unsupported SHOW statement")
4891        return ""
4892
4893    def put_sql(self, expression: exp.Put) -> str:
4894        props = expression.args.get("properties")
4895        props_sql = self.properties(props, prefix=" ", sep=" ", wrapped=False) if props else ""
4896        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4897        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
4898        return f"PUT {this} {target}{props_sql}"